


PRESENTED BY 












SEWING MATERIALS 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 
COTTONS, LINENS 
WOOLS 

SILKS, LACES 


5 D 

WOMAN’S INSTITUTE 
OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES 
SCRANTON, PA. 


.w* 

5"J 


Copyright, 1923, by International Educational Publishing Company 


Copyright in Great Britain 


All rights reserved 


Printed in U. S. A. 




Press of 

International Textbook Company 
Scranton, Pa. 








ksr 

Vkar 


PREFACE 


A knowledge of the romance, the story, that lies back of a hand¬ 
some piece of material or a delicate bit of lace gives a new reverence 
for it, a new pleasure in handling it, and a keener desire to fashion 
of it something that shall be beautiful and worthy. No course in 
sewing, therefore, should be considered complete without its history 
of materials. And so the Development of Textiles, the first subject 
of this book, tells the fascinating story of the development of our 
present-day marvelous weaves, a story filled with the interest of an 
historical novel. 

This leads the reader to the interesting account of the production 
and manufacture of the specific [weaves, cottons, linens, silks, and 
wools, and she finds here authentic methods by which she may test 
the weight and firmness, the serviceability, and the color fastness 
of such materials and by which she may detect adulterations. 
Weighted silks and mixtures of silk and other textiles are no longer 
empty expressions to her, for she learns unerringly to test the nature 
of silken fabrics. Similarly, she learns to detect the presence of 
cotton in a supposedly linen or woolen fabric. At her convenience, 
too, for ready reference are the tables of materials, their names, 
descriptions, weaves, usual widths, normal prices, and the pur¬ 
poses for which they are commonly used, this providing her with 
information that aids her materially in purchasing materials. 

So beautiful a craft as lace making merits more than the casual 
interest of women, and particularly of the dressmaking student. 
Appreciation and understanding of the beautiful varieties of hand¬ 
made laces and the ability to distinguish them from the machine- 
made, is a cultural as well as a practical asset, and thus the portion 
of the book dealing with this subject possesses two-fold interest. 

Coupled with the history of lace making and a description of the 
terms used in connection with the lace industry, the various kinds 
of laces are illustrated and described. Practically all of the laces 




IV 


PREFACE 


ordinarily used in dressmaking are discussed so as to prepare a 
woman to recognize any kind of lace when she sees it, to have a cor¬ 
rect conception of its place in garment making, and to know whether 
it will give the service she desires of it. 

The equipment of the student is thus enlarged and enriched by 
the perusal of this volume, and to her general fund of cultural infor¬ 
mation is added much interesting and useful knowledge. 


CONTENTS 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 

Pages 

Origin and Growth . 2 

Spinning ... 2- 6 

Early Development—Kinds of Spinning Wheels—Carding—Im¬ 
provements in Spinning. 

Weaving . 6_12 

Nature and History—Varieties of Weaves. 

Knitting . 13 

Cloth Finishes . 13,14 

Bleaching . 14,15 

Dyeing and Printing .. 15-18 

Origin of Dyeing—Methods of Piece Dyeing—Methods of Fiber 
Dyeing—Dyeing Figured Material—Printing of Fabrics—Block 
Printing. 

COTTON 

Production and Manufacture . 1-5 

Classification—Growth of Plant—Cotton Ginning—Sorting, Bal¬ 
ing, and Opening—Carding, Combing, Drawing—Spinning—Dye¬ 
ing—Weaving—Cotton Finishes—Printing. 

Purchasing Cotton Materials . 5-12 

Tests for Quality—Table of Cotton Materials. 

LINENS 

Nature and Uses . 1, 2 

Production and Manufacture . 2-6 

Cultivation of Plant—Removing Leaves and Seeds—Retting— 
Breaking and Scutching—Hackling and Drawing—Spinning— 

Sizing, Bleaching, Weaving—Finishing Processes—Countries 
Producing Linen. 

Purchasing Linens . 6-8 

Tests for Linen—Table of Linens. 

WOOL 

Wool Production . 2 

Origin—Wool Supply. 


V 
















VI 


CONTENTS 


WOOL —(Continued) Pages 

Wool Manufacture . 2-6 

First Processes—Manufacture of Woolens—Manufacture of 
Worsteds. 

Purchasing Wool Materials . 7-20 

Tests for Wool—Table of Wools—Examples of Wools. 

SILK 

Silk Culture . 1- 3 

Origin—Spread of Culture—Life History of Silkworm—Wild 
Silk. 

Silk Manufacture . 3- 5 

Silk Reeling—Doubling and Twisting—Spun Silk—Dyeing—Weav¬ 
ing and Finishing Processes—Printing. 

Rayon . 5-7 

Development—Source and Manufacture—Advantages and Dis¬ 
advantages. 

Purchasing Silk . 8-14 

Tests for Silk—Table of Silks. 

LACES 

History of Lace. 1- 4 

Origin of Lace—Growth of Lace Making—Lace Making at 
Present. 

Methods of Making Lace. 4- 7 

Needle-Point Lace—Bobbin Lace—Woven Lace—Embroidery Lace. 

Varieties of Lace . 7-50 

Lace Terms—Examples of Typical Laces. 











DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


ORIGIN AND GROWTH 

1. Tne preparation of materials for body covering, chief of 
which are cotton, flax, silk, and wool, whether for ornament or for 
warmth and comfort, has demanded consideration from the earliest 
times. Primitive women, who were concerned with providing 
shelter and clothing for the family while the men were engaged in 
seeking food and in warfare, played an important part in the 
early development of the textile industry. 

At first, women made clothes from the leaves and bark of certain 
trees or from the skins of animals, depending on the climate in 
which they lived. In tropical countries, the inner bark of one 
kind of tree was pounded until it was sufficiently thin and pliable, 
and then it was decorated and used for garments. 

When skins were worn, the hair or wool was generally placed 
next to the body; so, in some cases, such as in wool, the fibers 
felted from the oils of the wearer’s body. This marks the beginning 
of one form of textiles. Later, the dried skins of animals were 
tanned to make them smooth. 

2. Probably weaving originated through the using of the reeds 
and grasses that primitive folk found in their wandering life.’ 
These were twisted, knotted, interlaced, and tied to make mats 
and baskets. Gradually, the fibers of plants and the coats of 
animals were woven, the first woven articles being used for floor 
coverings. With the occupations of men and women becoming 
somewhat stable, a pastoral life gradually came into existence 
and brought with it more desire for personal adornment. Weaving 
thus became an important industry and experienced many improve? 
ments. 



2 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


During the agricultural era which followed, flax and cotton plants 
were widely cultivated and sheep were raised for wool. By degrees, 
life became more settled, households were established, and private 
ownership became the rule. In fact, by the time that America 
was going through her colonization, each home was a unit in itself, 
the mother and daughters spinning and weaving, while the father 
and sons prepared the fibers and made and repaired the machinery 
and tools. 

3. The textile industry received considerable impetus through 
the various inventions that helped to perfect spinning and weaving. 
At first, only human power was used: then horse and water power 
were employed; and finally steam and electricity replaced both of 
these. With the increase of the demand and consequently of the 
production, the industry left the home and entered the factory. 
Thus, women have gradually given up the making of cloth except 
as they are employed in factories to do certain parts of the work. 


SPINNING 

4. Early Development. —The origin of spinning, which is a 
process of drawing out and twisting fibers in such a manner as to 
produce a continuous thread, is difficult to trace. One story is 
that of a shepherd boy who, while watching his sheep one day, 
noticed a bunch of wool hanging on a nearby bush. In his idleness, 
he began to twist the fiber and, as he twisted it, he drew the fibers 
apart and found that he could make a long thread from these 
comparatively short fibers. Some authorities entirely discount 
this story, claiming that, due to necessity, primitive woman was 
the inventor of spinning. Whatever its origin, it was with this 
invention that the true art of textiles began. 

5. In the beginning, the spinner held the fibers in her left hand 
and twisted and drew them out with her right into a continuous 
thread, which she wound on a stick, called a spindle , as shown at a, 
Fig. 1. She had no means of keeping the fiber in order or even of 
cleaning it before it was spun. Very soon, however, the distaff made 
its appearance and shortly after it came the whorl. On one end 
of the distaff, which was a stick 12 to 18 inches long, the fibers 
were loosely fastened, as shown at b, the other end being held 



DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


3 



under the left arm or stuck in the belt of the spinner so that both 
hands were left free to work with the fiber. The spinner soon found 
that it was much easier to spin with a full spindle 
than with an empty one, so she conceived the idea of 
weighting it with a whorl and it then consisted of a 
stick with a weight on the lower end, as shown in Fig. 2. 

With these two improvement sin 
equipment, the spinster , as she was 
called, would draw out the fiber 
from the distaff with her left hand, 
attach the end to the spindle, 
and give the spindle a sharp twist 
with her right. She would then 
allow the thread and whorl to 
twist in the opposite direction. 

After twisting a considerable 
length, she would wind the yarn 
on the spindle, fasten it to prevent its unwinding, and begin the 
process again. The rock, a later improvement, was merely a dis¬ 
taff made with a standard, as shown in Fig. 3, so that it stood on the 
floor beside the spinster. 

6. At the present time, the Navajo Indians of Arizona have an 
interesting method of spinning. With a slender stick for a spindle, 
the point of which is stuck in the ground, the spinner, sitting on 
the ground, pulls out the fiber and twirls the spindle to twist it. 
The yarn, when first spun, is very slightly twisted so that it must 
be gone over several times before it is ready for ^ 
use in a loom. S 

7. Kinds of Spinning Wheels. —Up to 
the 14th and 15th centuries, the distaff and ^ 
weighted spindle constituted the spinning equip¬ 
ment. Then, they were replaced by the spin¬ 
ning wheel, the spinners of India fastening a 
wheel to a spindle and making it rotate by 
means of a band. This first spinning wheel 
known to history was called the Gharka wheel Fig - 3 
It was a very crude instrument and spun only very 
coarse yarns, but it had the advantage of providing a more rapid 
method. 



Fig. 2 

of India. 






4 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


8. The great wheel, wool wheel, or muckle wheel, as shown in 
Fig. 4, was the next to make its appearance. It was called the 
great wheel because it had a large wheel. As it was used extensively 

in Scotland, it received the name of muckle wheel, 
muckle meaning great in the Scottish dialect. 
The term wool wheel was applied because it was 
best adapted to the spinning of wool fiber on 
account of the shortness of the fiber and the slow, 
intermittent motion of the wheel. 

To spin with this wheel, a portion of the fiber 
was drawn out and attached to the spindle; 
then the great wheel was struck with the hand 
or a wooden peg, the blow causing it to revolve, 
turn the spindle to which the fiber was attached, and twist the fiber. 
To wind up the yarn, the wheel had to be revolved in the opposite 
direction. When the spindle was full, the thread was wound off 
on a reel. It has been estimated that spinners who worked at 
this type of wheel walked as many as 20 miles a day as they spun. 
The principle of the great wheel is still used in our modern wool 
manufacture, but the mechanism has been so greatly improved that 
practically all of the work is now done by the machinery. 

9. The flax, or Leipsic, wheel, shown in Fig. 5, which is the one 
we ordinarily see as an heirloom, with its distaff, spindle, and flyer, 
and which is adapted to flax spinning, was a complicated piece of 
machinery when compared with the great wheel. It was a 
labor-saving invention in that it had a treadle for transmitting the 
power and permitted the spinner to sit down 
while spinning. The flyer, which was not found 
on the great wheel, revolved very rapidly, twist¬ 
ing the fibers and winding them on the bobbin. 

However, the spindle’s motion was held back by 
the spinner, who changed the yarn from one 
hook to the other of the flyer and gradually 
filled the bobbin evenly. The motion of this 
wheel is continuous, that is, the fiber is drawn 
out, twisted, and wound up at the same time. 

10. Carding. —In order to have a smoothly spun, clean 
yarn, it was necessary to clean the fiber and make it fine and soft 
before spinning. This was done by means of carding. Primitive 






DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


5 


woman used her fingers for carding, opening up and straightening 
the fibers into a soft lap. Later, cards , which were flat brushes 
containing bent wires set closely together in strips of leather tacked 
to the wood, were made for this pur¬ 
pose. With two of these cards, one 
in each hand, as shown in Fig. 6, 
fibers could be made very clean and 
fluffy and laid out to form parallel 
strands. 

11. In 1748, Lewis Paul in¬ 
vented a machine for carding, which 
consisted of revolving cylinders covered with wire cloth. John 
Lees, in 1772, invented an apron feed , a device that made it possible 
to put a large quantity of fiber in the machine at one time. Richard 
Arkwright was responsible for an invention by which the fiber was 
delivered from the carding machine in laps , but a short time after 
the apron feed was invented a funnel was attached to the card, 
thus making the raw material into a sliver. After being carded, 
either by hand or by this machine, the fiber was ready for spinning 
on either the great wheel or the flax wheel. 

12. Improvements in Spinning. —About the middle of 
the 18th century, there came an increased demand for materials. 
While the improved machinery made it possible to card the fiber 
ready for spinning and to weave the cloth on power looms, still the 
yarn was spun by hand. This, of course, held up production. To 
John Wyatt is due the honor of producing the first yarn spun with¬ 
out the use of the human fingers, a feat he accomplished in 1737. 
His machine drew the fiber through two moving rollers, which also 
used the flyer of the flax wheel. 

13. Up to this time, but one thread was spun at a time. James 
Hargreaves, an Englishman, was the first to work out a method of 
spinning a number of threads at the same time. The idea came to 
him one day when he saw a spinning wheel overturned, leaving 
the spindle revolving in a perpendicular instead of a horizontal 
position. Seeing at once the possibility of having a number of 
spindles revolving in this position, he made his spinning jenny , 
which spun eight threads at one time. It had an intermittent 
motion like the great wheel, but it spun thread that was not strong 



6 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


enough for warp. Hargreaves’ invention made him very unpopular 
with his fellow workmen, who persecuted him bitterly, for they felt 
that he was taking their work from them. 

14. The next improvement in spinning was Arkwright’s 
water frame , which was brought out in 1768. This machine was too 
heavy to be driven by hand, so that mule or horse power was 
required. Later, water power was used, which gave it the name of 
water frame, and in 1790 steam was employed. The action of 
the water frame was continuous like that of the flax wheel and that 
used today in ring spinning. In fact, the principles of both the 
modern mule and the ring-spinning frame are the same as those of 
the great wheel and the flax wheel. The differences lie in the 
mechanism that has been devised to take the place of the hands. 

15. Samuel Crompton, in 1779, patented his spinning machine 
under the name of the mule-spinning frame. Containing the good 
features of both Hargreaves’ and Arkwright’s inventions, it was 
more valuable than either of these before steam power was used. 
Later, when steam could be utilized for power and when Whitney 
invented his cotton-ginning machine in 1793, cotton spinning 
received a great impetus. 

It was when water and steam were used for power that the textile 
industry was taken from the home to the factory. But the principles 
of the machines used today in the largest factories are practically 
the same as those set forth in the inventions of Hargreaves, Ark¬ 
wright, and Crompton, with merely the substitution of machinery 
for the hand work formerly done by spinners. 


WEAVING 


NATURE AND HISTORY 

16. Weaving is the process of interlacing into a fabric two sets 
of threads or strips of pliable material that cross each other at 
right angles. The threads that run the entire length of the material 
and form the foundation for weaving are called warp threads , 
as indicated in Fig. 7. The threads that cross and interlace with 
the warp threads are called weft , woof , or filling , threads. At 




DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


7 


each side, the weft, or filling, threads, are woven very closely and 
bind the warp threads into a firm edge, which is called the selvage. 

As the warp threads have to bear a very great strain, they are 
very strong and nearly straight, as can 
readily be determined by observing and 
testing the ravelings. Weft, or woof, 
threads are often softer, less wiry, and of 
less even weave than the warp threads. A 
sharp sound usually accompanies the tear¬ 
ing of material across the warp threads, 
whereas a dull sound results if a lengthwise 
tear, or one across the weft threads, is made. 

17. History of Weaving. —Textile 
weaving dates back into prehistoric times, 
for in the earliest written records are to be 
found occasional references to a weaving 
industry well developed. Silk, wool, linen, 
and cotton of rare quality were all in use in 
those early days; in fact, the textiles that 
were woven in various parts of the Orient have perhaps never been 
excelled in richness of fabric, splendor of color, and intricacy of 
design. Even though everything points to an early and flourish¬ 
ing industry in weaving, very few of the looms of antiquity are 
preserved to us either in picture or in literature. In their pottery 
painting, the Greeks have handed down the looms of Penelope and 
Circe, which are examples of the early Greek looms. A picture of 
an early Egyptian loom is also available. 

Both the Egyptian and the Greek 
looms are vertical , or hold the warp 
threads in an upright position. The 
chief difference between these two looms 
is that the Egyptian began to weave at 
the bottom, while the Greek wove from 
top to bottom, small weights being 
attached to each warp thread. 

18. The vertical loom existed until 
the 15th century. Then the horizontal 
loom , which is shown in Fig. 8, and in which the warp threads lie in 
a horizontal position, took its place. 




Fig. 7 





























8 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


19. The invention of thejZy shuttle , in 1738, by John Kay meant 
a great deal in power weaving. In 1750, he made some improve¬ 
ments on it and, in 1760, his son invented the drop box. Both of 
these inventions made the work of weaving easier and quicker. 
Later, when Cartwright brought out his power loom, in 1789, and 
steam was applied to Arkwright’s spinning frame, the work of 
making textiles by power was established. 

20. Principles of Weaving. —In weaving, whether done 
on a primitive loom or on the modern power loom, three operations 
are included: shedding, picking, and battening. 

21. Shedding is the process of raising the warp threads as 
needed. At first, it was accomplished by raising each warp thread 
with the hand and slipping the weft thread through the space made. 
After a time, a simple contrivance known as a harness was devised, 
by means of which one set of warp threads could be raised at one 
time, the weft slipped through, and then the other set of warp 
threads raised. 

22. Picking is the process of throwing the weft threads across 
the warp. In the primitive methods, picking was accomplished 
very laboriously without even the use of an elementary shuttle. 
Later, however, the shuttle came into use and by means of it the 
weft threads were carried through the shed very quickly and easily. 

23. Battening is the process of pressing the weft threads 
against the finished cloth to make a firm fabric. 


VARIETIES OF WEAVES 

24. The two ways in which weaving is done produce two main 
classes of weaves: straight-line warp weaving and curved warp 
weaving. 

25. Straight-line warp weaving includes the three founda¬ 
tion weaves: (1) the plain, taffeta, or tabby, weave; (2) the twill, 
or diagonal, weave; (3) the satin, or sateen, weave. 

26. The plain weave , as illustrated in Fig. 9, is the simplest of 
all weaves and, if coarse yarns are used, may be made on a two- 
harness loom. In it one weft thread merely passes over and under 



DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


9 


one warp thread, as shown in Fig. 10. The plain weave is used 
principally for light-weight goods, such as voile, muslin, gingham, 



Fig. 9 Fig. 10 


linen, and nainsook. It is the least expensive weave to produce 
and requires the smallest amount of yarn or thread. 

Variations of the plain weave are found in the basket and Panama 
weaves. The basket weave is made by weaving two or more 
weft threads over two or more warp threads. The Panama weave 
is really a plain weave, but a different effect is gained by having the 
weft thread much heavier than the warp. 


27. The twill, or diagonal, weave is more elaborate than the 
plain weave. In its simplest form, the twill weave consists of one 
weft thread passing over two warp threads and then under one 
warp thread, this being sometimes called the prunella weave. 
Twill weaves vary greatly and consequently give us a large variety 
of materials, such as tricotine, serge, and gabardine. In serge, 
which is illustrated in Fig. 11, one weft thread passes over two warp 
threads and then under two warp threads, as Fig. 12 shows. In 
twill materials, the twill may run to either the right or the left, 
but in the majority of cases it runs to the right, a characteristic 



Fig. 11 


Weft 



that helps to determine the right side of twilled materials. Many 
threads are used in the twill weave, making firm, durable materials. 














































































10 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


28. The satin , or sateen , weave , shown in the satin in Fig. 13, 
is an important one for it is used in all fibers. In reality, it is a 


Weft 



Fig. 13 Fig. 14 


form of twill, as shown in Fig. 14, but the interlacing of the fibers 
is done so that the twill does not show and a smooth, lustrous 
surface with many loose, or floating, threads is produced. 

The satin weave differs from the sateen weave in that the warp 
threads form its surface, whereas in the sateen weave the filling, 
or weft, threads form the surface. Usually, the satin weave is 
used for silk and wool fibers, and the sateen, for cotton. It is 
also an excellent weave for a combination of fibers, such as silk and 
cotton, as in cotton-backed satin. 

Besides in satin and sateen, the satin weave is found in such 
materials as galatea, Venetian cloth, messaline, and foulard. 

29. Curved warp weaving includes the leno weaves, the pile 
weaves, the double-cloth weaves, the figure weave, and the lappet 
weaves. 


30. Leno weaving, which is shown in the marquisette in Fig. 15, 
consists of weft threads with the warp threads wound around them, 






til 





Fig. 15 


Fig. 16 


as shown in Fig. 16. This weave is used extensively in curtain 
scrim, but as it will not permit of having its threads drawn length- 
























DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


11 



wise, such material should not be purchased with the idea of hem¬ 
stitching it by hand. The leno weave is found also in silk grena¬ 
dine and marquisette. 

When it is closely woven, 
it is durable, but often 
it is very open and loose. 

31. The pile weave , 
shown in the velvet in 
Fig. 17, is the one in Fig - 17 

which the beautiful velvets of the world are produced. In this 
weave, the ground may be a plain, a basket, or a twill weave. 
As shown in Fig. 18, there are generally two sets of warp threads, 
WlVe!5 as at a and 6, which are 

,b 


held by the weft threads, 
as at c. One set of warp 
threads forms the pile, 
and in weaving these are 
held loosely so they may be drawn over wires to form loops, which 
are afterwards cut to produce the pile surface. Plushes, corduroys, 
bolivia, chinchilla, rugs, and carpets are other examples of this 
weave. Some of the plushes and velvets are in reality double cloth, 
being cut between the cloth. 

In another group of pile fabrics, such as terry cloth, which is 
.used for towels and wash cloths, the pile is in the form of loops of 
threads instead of ends. 

These materials should not, under any circumstances, be confused 
with those that are napped, such as outing flannel or broadcloth. 
The nap is produced by brushing the loosely woven cloth until a 
rough appearance is obtained. In duvetyn and velour, the fabric 
is matted, but in the case of broadcloth, it is pressed after napping 
to give it a smooth, mirror-like appearance. 



a> • i*i • m • j|Bi 


Fig. 18 


32. The double-cloth weave is used in fabrics that are woven 
with two sets of warp and two sets of weft threads. Special 
warps and a double harness are needed for weaving of this kind. 
Often, double-cloth materials are held together by means of catch¬ 
ing an occasional weft thread through to the opposite surface, 
and thus they become reversible, as heavy coating, polo cloth, rugs, 
and double-faced ribbons. Other times they are made by fastening 
two materials together with glue or mucilage. Again, they may 


SD—2 





12 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


be woven so as to be fastened on one or both edges to make tubular 
materials for lamp wicks, hose, and bags. 

33. The figure weave is a combination of the three foundation 
weaves—plain, satin, and twill. The simple figure weaves, such as 
diaper patterns, huckaback, and granite, are done on a regular 
loom, but for intricate figure work, such as is found in damasks 
and brocades, the Jacquard loom is required. 

Brocades have a right and a wrong side, whereas damasks are 
figured on both sides and are therefore reversible. 

34. The lappet weave consists of a plain weave with patterns 
woven on the surface to resemble hand embroidery. It is done 
by means of an attachment called a lappet , which is applied to a 
regular loom. The extra threads on the wrong side are cut off 
after the pattern is applied. Lappet weaving produces many 
pretty materials, dotted Swiss being the principal example, but 
they are not very durable as the process through which they pass 
during the weaving weakens them considerably. 

35. Bedford cord and pique have characteristics peculiar to 
themselves. They are sometimes known as cord weaves, but they 
may be called “backed” fabrics because they carry an extra set of 
warp threads at the back of the fabric. The one set of warp threads 
weaves in the usual way with the weft, while the extra set carried 
at the back of the fabric interlace with the weft threads at regular 
intervals, producing a lengthwise ribbed effect of a rather wide wale. 
Sometimes, a crosswise rib is produced by reversing the warp and 
weft, the weft forming the filling at the back of the material. 

36. Certain materials, such as bobbinet, maline, and tulle, 
contain weaves that cannot be classified as any of the regular 
textile weaves because of their construction. They have two sets 
of threads that correspond to the warp and weft of other materials, 
but these threads are woven on lace machines that permit varying 
degrees of tension and therefore cause the weft, or bobbin, threads 
to become twisted with the warp threads. To distinguish them from 
other materials, they may be designated as lace weaves. 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


13 


KNITTING 

37. Knitting is the process of making fabrics by looping a single 
thread, either by hand or by machine, each succeeding line of the 
thread being looped into the one before it. This art has been known 
for centuries, our grandmothers having knitted by hand large quan¬ 
tities of wool into stockings and mittens. The modern knitting 
machine has a great number of hooked needles, which open and close 
automatically and hold each loop as the knitting is done. If one 
loop is dropped, the whole web is threatened with destruction. 

Knitting yarn, which is softer and less twisted than weaving yarn, 
produces an elastic material that is used principally for underwear, 
hosiery, gloves, scarfs, etc. Sometimes it is plain and other times, 
ribbed, the ribbed varieties being more expensive and usually better 
wearing than the plain ones. 

The chief knitted fabrics are tricolette, Jersey, and stockinette. 
Some materials, such as eiderdown and chamoisette, have a 
knitted background through which soft yarns are passed to make a 
fuzzy surface. 


CLOTH FINISHES 

38. It must not be thought that a fabric is ready for use as 
soon as it comes from the loom or the knitting machine. Just 
the contrary is true, for it is then in an unfinished condition and is 
called raw thread. It must be treated in various ways, depending 
on the nature of the material and the finish to be applied. 

39. Practically all materials must be scoured , or washed in 
hot water and soap, in order to remove any dirt, oil, or other foreign 
substance, Such as size , a starch-like dressing put into certain warp 
yarns to make them easier to handle. Often it is necessary to 
hurl materials after weaving, that is, to pick out any knots, 
burrs, and similar imperfections found in them. 

40. Singeing consists in treating the surface of material to 
make it smooth after taking it from the loom. This is done by 
passing it over heated metal rollers to remove the loose nap. 

41. Fulling is another operation through which many woolen 
materials are put to give them a stronger and firmer body. This 



14 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


process shrinks the threads and makes the fabric compact and 
smooth. In the case of broadcloths and other nap-finished mater¬ 
ials, the fulling is carried on until the fibers become densely matted 
and cover up the weave. Tweeds, on the other hand, are fulled 
only to the extent of giving them a dressed surface, and certain 
other materials merely have their texture strengthened in the fulling. 

During the fulling process, the material is frequently taken out, 
stretched, straightened, and inspected. When it has been suffi¬ 
ciently filled, it is freed from the soap by being rinsed, first in tepid 
water and finally in cold water. 

42. To raise the nap of woolen material that has been fulled, 
it is teasled; that is, the surface fibers are pulled out or broken to 
produce an unequal nap. For this purpose, a thistle-like plant 
covered with a hook-like growth and called the teasle, is employed 
in the production of high-grade fabrics, although a metal device, 
also, is used to nap materials. After the nap is raised, it is cut to 
make it uniform. Sometimes the nap is pressed, and again it is 
allowed to stand upright. 

43. Many materials are put through a process called calender¬ 
ing to give their surface a smooth, even finish and sometimes to 
glaze them, as in sateens and silesias. Calendering is accomplished 
by running the material over warm cylinders, pressure and steam 
being employed in the process. The glazing of materials is brought 
about by putting them through rollers that move at different 
velocities. 


BLEACHING 

44. Before materials can be dyed or printed, they must be 
freed of their natural coloring matter and any oily substances 
that they contain. Sometimes it is found sufficient to scour the 
fabrics, but usually bleaching is also necessary. 

45. The process of bleaching consists of freeing textile fibers 
and fabrics from their natural color in order to whiten them. 
In ancient times, bleaching was done by exposing the material 
to the direct rays of the sun and wetting it at regular intervals. 
This method, while followed for many years, and even now used in 
some parts of Ireland, proved unsatisfactory because of the change- 



DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


15 


able weather conditions, the length of time required, and the 
possibility of losing much of the material through theft. 

The increase in the demand for cotton materials created a need 
for quicker and better bleaching methods. The use of power¬ 
ful chemical preparations has practically supplanted the former 
methods, especially where large quantities of material are to be 
bleached in big manufacturing plants. Chlorine is generally used 
for the vegetable fibers, that is, for cotton and linen, and sulphur¬ 
ous acid for the animal fibers, silk and wool. In the case of linen, 
grass bleaching is sometimes combined with the chemical treat¬ 
ment. 


DYEING AND PRINTING 

46. The final step in the preparation of material for the market 
is dyeing or printing or both. Dyeing is the art of fixing coloring 
matter in the substance of a textile by immersing the fabric in the 
color solution, while printing consists in applying color to only 
certain portions of a fabric by means of a machine. In some 
materials, these processes are combined. As would naturally be 
expected, printed colors are not so lasting as dyed ones, although 
many attractive and unusual designs can be produced by the printing 
method. 


47. Origin of Dyeing. —Dyeing was known in the most 
ancient times, for we find mention of it in the oldest writings and 
some of the mummy clothes found in the pyramids contain borders 
of colors. However, it is thought that dyeing was not a common 
art in those early days, for dyed materials were put to only certain 
uses and were worn chiefly by persons of unusual distinction. 

The early dyers used only the products of nature or very simple 
preparations, such as brickthorn berries, gall nuts, sumac, sandal¬ 
wood, madder, cochineal, and logwood. These natural dyes are 
still used in the East for the dyeing of the yarn for Oriental rugs, 
a fact that accounts for the wonderfully soft and beautiful colorings 
of these rugs even after long use, the natural dyes fading in tones 
of the same hue. 

48. Origin of Artificial Dyes.— It was not until 1856, when 
Perkin, an Englishman, discovered the first coal-tar dye, mauve, 
that synthetic dyes, or artificial coloring matter, came into use. 



16 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


This discovery produced a revolution in dyeing methods, for 
the products of coal tar, the pitch distilled from bituminous coal 
and condensed in the manufacture of coal gas, chief among which is 
aniline, have formed the basis for practically all dyeing materials 
since. Many other discoveries followed, chemists producing from 
time to time materials that closely resemble the natural dyes in 
effect although they bear no similarity to them -in chemical 
composition. In fact, these synthetic dyes have nearly supplanted 
the natural ones. 

A very important step in the history of dyeing was the discovery 
in 1870, by a German chemist, of a way to transform an extract of 
aniline into alizarine, a coloring matter identical with madder, one 
of the most ancient of natural dyestuffs. When this material 
was available for the trade, it practically drove the natural product, 
madder, from the market. 

49. Methods of Piece Dyeing. —Dyeing cloth with coal-tar 
dyes is done in three ways: by direct, basic, and vat dyeing. 

50. Direct dyeing consists in subjecting the cloth to a dye bath 
and, by means of frequent turnings of the cloth, transferring the 
color to it. Dyeing of this sort is not likely to produce such good 
results as that done by the other methods. 

51. Basic dyeing is that which requires the services of a mordant 
to make the dye permanent. By a mordant is meant a substance 
that will fix colors. To accomplish this, it must both penetrate 
the fiber of the material and combine with the dye-matter in such 
a way as to form an insoluble compound in or out of the fiber. 
Various substances, such as tannin, gelatine, gluten, albumen, soda, 
and lead salts, are used as mordants. The most common method 
of dyeing with a mordant is to work it into the cloth and then to 
apply the coloring matter. The art of the dyer consists in com¬ 
bining the cloth, the mordant, and the dye so as to obtain a color 
that will be chemically combined and permanent. 

52. Vat dyeing has long been in use in Germany but has only 
recently come into use in the United States. This form of dyeing 
is interesting in that the cloth may not have the desired color when 
it is removed from the dye bath but assumes the correct color on 
being exposed to the air. Indigo is one of the colors that develop 
by oxidizing, or exposure to the air. 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


17 


53. Methods of Fiber Dyeing. —In contrast with these 
methods of dyeing in the piece are several methods of dyeing fibers 
before and after they are spun. Dyeing in the wool consists in dye¬ 
ing the wool after it has been washed and scoured and before it is 
dry. Dyeing in the slub means the dyeing of wool after it is carded 
and combed but not twisted. Dyeing in the skein is the dyeing of 
yarn after it has been spun and is in skein form, a form of dyeing 
used for ginghams, wool plaids, and novelty effects. 

54. Dyeing Figured Material. —Practically all the dyeing 
methods that have been explained produce plain-colored materials. 
If a figured or striped material is to be manufactured, it is usually 
dyed by means of resist or discharge dyeing. 

55. Resist dyeing is used for material containing a combina¬ 
tion of fibers, such as cotton and wool, or for fabrics in which a stripe 
or a design of another color is found. One of the fibers or colors 
is treated so that it remains unchanged in the dye that colors the 
other part. In the case of the Batik work of Java, which is a form 
of resist dyeing, the part that is not to be dyed is covered with wax, 
which is later removed. 

56. Discharge dyeing consists in dyeing the material in the 
piece and then removing some of the coloring by means of chemicals 
in order to produce figures, dots, and stripes. Considerable 
experiment is required in discharge dyeing to determine the right 
bleach for each dye. 

57. Printing of Fabrics. —Printing, which has come to be 
a science in itself, is done chiefly in the case of such materials as 
calico, voile, percale, and galatea. The cloth is first prepared by 
singeing, bleaching, scouring, and starching it. Then it is printed 
by being put through a machine that contains engraved copper 
rollers bearing the design, a different roller being required for 
each color that the pattern contains. If a dye is used that will 
mix with the cotton without the use of a mordant, the process is 
very much simplified. 

When a mordant must be used to fix the dye, it is usually applied 
first by means of a roller over which the cloth is run. The cloth 
is then dried by steam-heated cylinders, after which it is relieved 
of its acid by various processes so that its mordant is left in the 


18 


DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTILES 


pure form. A thorough washing in soft water completes the prep¬ 
aration for the dyeing. 

With the material properly cleaned and containing only a faint 
outline of its pattern, it is immersed in a bath of alizarine, from 
which it comes out a completely printed fabric. This solution has 
the power to produce all the colors that were printed on the material 
by the mordants. A final boiling in soap and water to brighten 
the colors brings the fabric up to its finishing processes—calendering, 
folding, or rolling for the market. 

58. Block Printing. —The earliest form of printing was 
known as block printing. Now it is used chiefly in art work, having 
been superseded by machine printing in the manufacture of fabrics. 
In block printing, the design is cut out on a block of wood, the 
parts that are to make the impression being left prominent and 
the rest of the block being cut away. The color is supplied to the 
block, which is then pressed firmly on the fabric in order to transfer 
the design. As can be imagined, this is a process that, while it 
produces extremely beautiful, artistic effects, is too slow to be used 
commercially. 


COTTON 


PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURE 

1. Cotton is a downy vegetable fiber obtained from the boll, 
or seed pod, of the cotton plant. This plant grows from 3 to 6 
feet in height and is native principally to the island and seacoast 
regions of the tropics, although it is raised successfully in other 
places. A sandy soil and a warm climate are necessary for its 
growth. 

The earliest cotton was produced in India, Dacca muslin being 
among the first cotton fabrics ever made. India was the center 
of the cotton industry for hundreds of years and still produces 
cotton in large quantities. It was from this country, in the 
16th century, that cotton was brought to America. Although 
the United States was the last to take up cotton growing, for 
almost a hundred years it has exceeded all other countries in the 
production of this fiber, and at present it raises about three- 
fourths of the entire world’s crop. 

2. Classification. —The cotton plant, the botanical name of 
which is gossypium , is a member of the mallow family, its flowers 
closely resembling the hollyhock of our gardens. Numerous classi¬ 
fications have been made of its varieties, some authorities giving a 
large number, but the majority place all cotton in four classes, 
namely, herb cotton, gossypium herbaceum; shrub cotton, gossy¬ 
pium hirsutum; tree cotton, gossypium arboreum; and lintless 
cotton, gossypium barbadense. Growers and buyers of cotton, 
however, prefer to classify it according to its place of growth, their 
chief classes being Sea Island, Egyptian, Upland, Indian, and 
Peruvian. The characteristics of these classes are as follows: 



2 


COTTON 


3. Sea Island cotton is grown on the islands along the coast 
of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida. It has long, silky, fine 
fibers and is used for making the finest cotton thread, such as that 
utilized for laces, sewing thread, silk mixtures, and silk imitations. 

4. Egyptian cotton ranges in color from white to brown, the 
brownish color being due to the coloring matter in the Nile. 
Its fiber is unusually long, from 1\ to 1^ inches, and it is used to 
some extent in the manufacture of spool cotton. Its greatest 
use, however, is in the manufacture of fancy knit goods, such as 
the better grades of hosiery and underwear, it being next in value 
to Sea Island cotton. 

5. Upland cotton is grown in the United States on the uplands 
of some of the South Atlantic States. It is a cotton that varies 
greatly according to the cultivation of the plant and the character 
of the soil in which it is grown. The fibers of this cotton range 
from f inch to 1J inches in length and form a source from which we 
obtain the bulk of our cotton for use as sheeting, gingham, calico, 
and similar materials. 

6. India cotton is used for making very coarse yarns, such 
as those used in denims and drilling, as it is shorter and weaker 
than the American upland cotton. The United States uses very 
little India cotton; its greatest markets are Japan and European 
countries. 

7. Peruvian and Brazilian cotton, or South American cot¬ 
ton , as it is sometimes called, has fibers of a harsh, wiry char¬ 
acter, which make both of these varieties useful in the adultera¬ 
tion of wool. The fiber is about the same length as that of 
Egyptian cotton. 

8. Growth of Plant. —Cotton is planted some time from 
March until May and matures from August until the frost comes, 
often as late as November or December. It is ready to pick as 
soon as the boll bursts open and shows its downy center. The 
picking is practically all done by hand, for although machines are 
sometimes used, they are not very satisfactory because they cannot 
distinguish between the ripe and unripe bolls and not all the bolls 
ripen at the same time. Each picker picks from 150 to 200 pounds 
of cotton a day. 


COTTON 


3 


9. Cotton Ginning. —After being picked, the cotton is taken 
to a ginnery , where the seeds are removed from the fiber by the 
cotton gin. This device, invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney, has 
played a very important part in the history of the cotton industry. 
Up to the time of its invention, the seeds and fiber were separated 
by hand, but this was a very slow process for no one was able to 
clean more than 6 pounds of cotton in a week. Now, with the 
modem gins in use, two men can remove the cotton from the wagon 
and attend six gins, which clean 24,000 pounds in a day. 

The cotton gin consists of a series of saw-like teeth that draw the 
fiber of the cotton through holes too small to permit the seeds to 
pass. The lint is carried on by rollers, whereas the seeds are sent 
to the oil presses, these being frequently installed in the gin houses, 
where the seeds are pressed through special machinery and yield 
cotton-seed oil, the hulls being used for fuel and fertilizer. 

10. Sorting, Baling, and Opening. —After cotton is ginned, 
it is generally made into bales of 500 pounds each and shipped to a 
manufacturing center. Owing to the difference in the length 
and the condition of the fiber, the cotton must first be graded. To 
do this, the bale is broken and the cotton is placed in a machine 
known as a cotton opener , which tears the cotton apart. With the 
fibers opened, they are sorted according to length and whiteness. 
Bale breaking and opening are not necessary operations if the 
cotton is hauled from the gin directly to the cotton mill and it is to 
be graded at once. 

11. Carding, Combing, Drawing. —The cotton passes 
through several intermediate steps that prepare it for the carding 
process. By means of a machine containing a card and a comb, 
the action of which has been compared to that of a comb and brush 
on the hair, the fibers are cleaned of their impurities and laid 
approximately parallel. From the card, which delivers the cotton 
in the form of a sliver, it is run through the combing machine , if it is 
intended for very fine material. Otherwise, it goes straight to the 
drawing frame , which combines several slivers and draws them out 
so that they are the size of one. After going through the drawing 
frame several times, the fibers are sent to the fly frames , where they 
are drawn still smaller and twisted very slightly. Then the yarn 
is wound on bobbins. 


4 


COTTON 


12. Spinning. —The next step in cotton manufacture is 
spinning, which is usually done on an upright frame by the flyer 
or the ring system. A humid atmosphere is more satisfactory for 
cotton spinning than is a dry one. Consequently, England is 
more suitable for this work than America, although large quantities 
are spun in both the Southern and the New England States. The 
chief purpose of spinning is to unite and draw out the fibers and to 
twist them into yarn. 

There is a difference between the spinning of yarn for warp and 
that for weft. Since the warp yarn must be stronger than the weft, 
longer fiber cotton with a harder twist is used for it. For the weft 
yam, the short fiber is employed. 

The invention of the cotton gin by Whitney made possible a 
large supply of cotton for spinning. Also, improvements in spinning 
wheels gave a great impetus to the industry. In fact, spinning was 
practically taken out of the home and made a problem for 
factories, where it has been kept ever since. 

13. Dyeing. — As soon as the yam is spun, it may. be dyed 
at once, when it is known as “dyed in the yarn”; or it may be woven 
first and then dyed, when the material is called “dyed in the piece.” 
Most of the cotton yarn is dyed before weaving. Sometimes, the 
yarn is bleached and mercerized before dyeing. 

14. Weaving. —Before cotton cloth is woven, the warp 
threads are sized to increase their strength and to make them with¬ 
stand the wear of the loom. The warp is then placed on a warp 
beam and each of the warp threads is drawn through its particular 
heald, or vertical wire containing an eye, in the harness and its 
space in the reed, or a heavy frame set close with straight wires, 
between which the warp threads pass. The reed presses the weft 
threads up close to the finished piece to make it firm and even. 

, Two operators are required to thread a loom for the first time, but 
after it is once threaded, the ends of the old warp may be tied to the 
ends of the new with a weaver’s knot and the new warp drawn 
through. The pattern to be followed in the weaving is, of course, 
worked out before the warp is threaded in the loom. 

The principle of weaving is practically the same in all looms at 
the present time. The harnesses automatically raise and lower 
the warp threads and with each opening of the shed, which is the 
space between the warp threads, the shuttle flies through, leaving a 


COTTON 


5 


trail weft thread; then the harnesses raise another set of warp 
threads and the shuttle flies back. The majority of cotton weaves 
are plain, but twill weaves are seen in some materials, such as drilling 
and khaki. 

15. Cotton Finishes. —The varied finishes given to cotton 
materials account for the large variety of cotton materials on the 
market. Nearly all cottons are sized to some extent, the kind of 
material used for sizing depending on the effect desired. Thus, 
organdie is sized to give it a very crisp appearance and percale 
is treated with mucilage or gum to give it a glossy finish. 

16. By calendering, or putting the cloth between heated steel 
rolls and using warm dressings, a high luster may be obtained, as 
in the case of sateen. Mulls are softened by means of oils; cre¬ 
tonnes are treated with clay to give them a solid appearance. 

17. Mercerization is a finish given to various cotton materials. 
It is done in either the yarn or the cloth, usually before bleaching, 
and consists in treating cotton under tension with a solution of 
caustic soda to provide a high luster. Unless the yam or cloth is 
stretched very tight when treated with the soda, it shrinks both 
lengthwise and crosswise and takes on a crinkled appearance. At 
one time, this was the method used for maufacturing cotton crepe. 

18. Printing. —In cotton manufacture, printing is an impor¬ 
tant process. It consists in impressing, or stamping, a design on the 
surface of a woven fabric or on the warp threads before the weaving 
is begun. The designs in calico, percale, organdie, and many other 
figured cotton materials are produced by means of printing. 


PURCHASING COTTON MATERIALS 


TESTS FOR QUALITY 

19. Before you buy cotton fabrics, there are several tests that 
you should make in order to determine their quality. Because of 
the comparative cheapness of cotton fiber, it is seldom adulterated, 
but an inferior grade of cotton is often made to appear heavier 
by the addition of dressing. To test a thin fabric for the presence 
of dressing, when making a purchase, simply hold it up to the light 
and examine it. In this position, the starch that it contains will 




6 


COTTON 


show between the threads. Or, rub the material in the hands to 
remove a part of the dressing and thus determine the firmness of 
the cloth. In the laundering process, such material loses both its 
weight and its firmness. So, if you wish to make the most convinc¬ 
ing test for the presence of dressing, wash a sample of the material 
and compare it with the original piece. 

20. Fastness to sunlight and washing is a very important 
quality of cotton material. To test for this, cover one end of a 
sample with a piece of cardboard or something else that will keep 
out light and expose the uncovered end to sunlight for several days. 
If the color remains unchanged, the fastness of the color to light 
is practically assured. Then wash the sample in a warm soap 
solution, repeating this process several times. If the color still 
remains intact, you may rest satisfied that it is fast. 

Guaranteed, fast-color material is more expensive at the out¬ 
set than materials which are not guaranteed, because of the 
special dyeing process required to produce fast colors. However, 
the additional expense is justified by the attractiveness of the 
material throughout its life. 

21. Dark-colored materials that have not been properly dyed 
have a tendency, when worn, to crock and discolor other garments 
or the skin. To test for this condition, rub a sample of the material 
briskly on a white, unstarched cotton fabric. If the color in the 
dark material does not rub off with this treatment, you may feel 
quite certain that the dyeing was properly done. 

22. In buying material that is desired for long service, examine 
its warp and weft threads. These should be in good proportion as 
to strength and firmness, for the unequal tension produced by 
threads that are too decidedly unlike will soon cause the material to 
split or wear. Besides considering the strength and firmness of the 
fabric, test its quality by untwisting one of its threads and noticing 
the length of the separate fibers. Long fibers, that is, from J to 
| inch, provide additional strength and have good wearing qualities. 


TABLE OF COTTON MATERIALS 

23. The materials, or fabrics, made from cotton are large in 
number and variety. In order that you may become familiar with 
most of them, all those in common use for home dressmaking are 



COTTON 


7 


given in Table I. In it the materials are listed in alphabetical 
order, and, in addition to a description of each, the names of 
the weaves, the usual widths, and the normal prices are men¬ 
tioned. Also, in this table, as well as in the tables for linens, 
silks, and wools, trade names are omitted, except those which have 
become generally known through advertising, such as “flaxon,” 
“Georgette,’’ etc. 

It is advisable to study these tables and refer to them as occasion 
demands. This information, together with the tests for materials, 
will, if you are inexperienced, assist you materially in purchasing 
materials. Not only will you quickly learn to buy intelligently, 
but you will have the assurance that you are not making mistakes 
about prices. In addition, this information will aid you in the 
selection of materials for garments. 


TABLE I 

COTTON MATERIALS 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Batiste.... 

Plain 

32 to 45 

25c. to $1 

A fine, light, semitransparent cloth 
made in white and a few colors. 
Used for lingerie dresses, blouses, 
and underwear; coarse weave 
used for lining. 

Bobbinet. . 

Lace 

45, 54, 72 

50c.to$2.50 

Machine-made netting woven to 
produce six-sided figures; com¬ 
monly called net. Used for 
dresses and, in the firmer 
weaves, for linings, overdrapes, 
and window draperies. 

Broadcloth 

Plain 

36 

40c. to $1 

A cloth of medium weight and firm 
texture. Used for shirts, 

blouses, dresses, and children’s 
clothes. Especially good for 
boys’ wash suits. 

Buckram. . 

Plain 

24 

29c. to 75c. 

Coarse, open-weave material, made 
stiff with glue sizing. Used in 
garments for stiffening. Chiefly 
used for millinery purposes. 

Bunting.. . 

Plain 

18 to 36 

12£c. up 

Soft, open-weave fabric used for 
flags and decorating purposes. 
Also comes in wool. 


Note. —The prices in this table are based on normal trade conditions. 










8 


COTTON 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
. nches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Calico. 

Plain 

24 and 27 

10c. up 

Closely woven, thin cloth, usually 
with figured designs printed on 
one side. Used for inexpensive 
dresses and aprons. Often called 
cotton print. 

Cambric.. . 

Canton, or 
Cotton, 

Plain 

24 and 36 

15c. to 50c. 

Fine fabric with a glazed finish. 
Used for handkerchiefs, linings, 
and undergarments. Kid-fin¬ 
ish cambric is narrower in width 
and cheaper in price. 

flannel. . 

Twill 

27 

10c. to 50c. 

Heavy cotton with long nap on the 
right side. Used for children’s 
underwear, interlining, etc. 

Canvas.... 

Plain 

27 to 40 

15c. to $1 

A coarse, firm material. Used for 
stiffening coats, facings, etc.; also, 
for making mail bags, tents, and 
sails. There is also an open- 
weave canvas used in embroi¬ 
dery work known as cross-stitch 
canvas. 

Challis. .. . 

Plain 

24 and 36 

19c. to $2 

A fine fabric, both plain and fig¬ 
ured. Used for inexpensive 
dresses and for comfortables. 

Chambray. 

Plain 

27 and 32 

15c. to $1 

Light-weight material with colored 
warp and white filling. Used 
for dresses, aprons, and sunbon- 
nets. 

Cheesecloth 

Plain 

24 and 36 

12ic. to 
50c. 

Thin, light-weight fabric. Used for 
wrapping cheese, butter, etc.; 
also, for dish towels and for 
window decorating. Colored 
cheesecloth is used for masquer¬ 
ade suits and 'dresses. 

Chintz.... 

Plain 

27 to 50 

25c. to $5 

Material similar to cretonne, 
usually glazed-finished. 

Corduroy.. 

Pile 

36 

89c. to $5 

A durable, ribbed fabric in white 
and colors. Expensive qualities 
have cotton warp and silk pile. 
Used mostly for outing suits, 
lounging robes, and children’s 
coats. 

Coutil. 

Twill 

36 to 54 

30c. to $5 

A stout material, sometimes in fig¬ 
ured weave, used for corsets, 
brassieres, bed coverings, and 
draperies. 















COTTON 


9 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Cr§pe. 

Plain 

f Plain 1 

27, 32, 36 

19c. to $2 

A crinkled, light-weight fabric. 
Used for underwear, blouses, and 
dresses. Some grades have floral 
and Japanese designs. Used 
for kimonos and lingerie robes. 

Cretonne. . 

l Twill | 
[ Fancy J 

24 to 50 

25c. to $12 

A medium-heavy cloth, usually 
printed in floral and striped 
designs. Used for upholstery 
and draperies. 

Crinoline. . 

Plain 

27 and 36 

19c. to 50c. 

An open-weave fabric filled with 
sizing. Used in cuffs, belts 
coats, and hats for stiffening. 

Damask... 

Satin and 
Jacquard 

36, 54, 64, 
and 72 

75c.to$2.50 

A figured fabric used for table linen 
and towels. See Damask, Table 
II. 

Strong, durable fabric in plain 
colors. Used for overalls and 
for furniture and floor coverings. 

Denim.... 

Twill 

29, 32, 36 

30c. to 50c. 

Diaper.... 

Figure 

18 to 36 

20c. to 60c. 

Soft fabric, generally made with 
small diamond or bird’s-eye pat¬ 
tern; used for towels and under¬ 
garments. 

Dimity.... 

Plain 

27 and 36 

19c. to $1 

Corded or crossbar, light-weight 
material, plain and figured. Used 
for infants’ garments, undergar¬ 
ments, aprons, and lingerie 
dresses. 

Drilling. . . 

Twill 

32 to 36 

25c. up 

Coarse, firm cloth. Used for men’s 
outing suits and for interlinings. 

Duck. 

Plain 

18,27,36, 
and 126 

25c. to $5 

A heavy-weight, highly finished 
fabric. Used for outing skirts and 
coats and for tents and awnings. 

Flannelette 

Plain 

27 to 36 

29c. to 59c. 

A soft fabric with a slight nap. 
Comes in white and colors. Used 
for sleeping and baby garments 
and for kimonos. 

Flaxon. .. . 

Plain 

32, 36, 40 

29c. to $1 

A mercerized lawn of fine quality. 
Used for blouses, dresses, and lin¬ 
gerie. Flaxon is a trade name. 

Gabardine. 

Twill 

36 

25c.to$1.50 

A stout material used chiefly for 
tailored dresses and skirts. See 
Gabardine, Table III. 

Galatea... 

Twill 

27 to 36 

35c. to 75c. 

A heavy, firm material for boys' 
clothes, outing skirts, middy 
blouses,and dress-form coverings. 


5D—3 















10 


COTTON 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Gauze. 

Plain or 
Leno 

36 

10c. to 20c. 

Loosely woven, flimsy material, but 
very strong because of the weave. 
Used as foundation for collars 
and yokes, but principally for 
bandages. See Gauze, Table IV. 

Gingham.. 

Plain 

27 to 40 

15c.to$1.75 

A firm material dyed in the yarn 
before weaving. Many com¬ 
binations of warp and weft are 
made to form stripes and plaids. 
Used for dresses and aprons. 

Grenadine. 

Leno 

27 to 36 

25c. to $2 

Loose-weave fabric, usually with 
satin stripes. Used for party 
dresses and for draperies. Also 
made in silk and wool. 

Huckaback 

Figure 

18 to 36 

20c. to 75c. 

A rough-weave cotton toweling. 
See Huckaback, Table II. 

India linon. 

Indian 

Plain 

27 and 30 

18c. to 75c. 

A cotton lawn in imitation of linen. 
Name is applied to many quali¬ 
ties of lawn. Used for children’s 
dresses, aprons, and fancy work. 

Head. . . 

Plain 

18 to 54 

23c. to $1 

A coarse, firm material used as a 
substitute for plain, heavy linen. 
Comes in white and fast colors. 
Indian Head is a trade name. 

Khaki. 

Kindergar¬ 

Twill 

29 

25c. to 75c. 

Dark tan cloth. Used for men’s and 
boys’ clothes, army uniforms, girls’ 
and women’s outing garments. 

ten cloth. 

Plain 

32 

25c. to 45c. 

Stout, closely woven material with a 
smooth surface. Usually in stripes. 
Used for children’s clothes. 

Lawn. 

Plain 

27 to 40 

25c. to $1 

Sheer fabric filled with starch or 
sizing. Used for dresses, aprons, 
and curtains. 

Linene.... 

Plain 

33 to 54 

29c. to $1 

A substitute for linen. Much like 
Indian Head , except that it is 
softer and has a smooth finish. 

Long-cloth. 

Plain 

36 

12£c. to $1 

Closely woven, fine, bleached mus¬ 
lin. Used for underwear and 
infant’s clothes. 

Madras. . . 

Plain 

27 to 50 

35c. to $1 

Firmly woven material, usually hav¬ 
ing stripes, which may be woven 
in satin, basket, or fancy weaves. 

Marquisette 

Leno 

40 

25c. to 75c. 

Soft, open weaves in fine and coarse 
qualities. Used for dresses and 
curtains. Coarser qualities iden¬ 
tical with scrim. 















COTTON 


11 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Mull. 

Plain 

27 to 40 

35c. to $1 

Very soft, sheer, light material in 
white and colors. Used for 
dress foundations, blouses, and 
for inexpensive party dresses. 
Firm qualities sold under trade 
names of seco silk and silk 
muslin. 

Muslin.... 

Plain 

36 to 90 

19c.to$1.50 

A firm and loose weave, bleached 
and unbleached. Unbleached 
often referred to as raw muslin 
or domestic. Used for under¬ 
garments where durability is 
desired and for sheets and pil¬ 
low cases. 

Nainsook.. 

Organdie, 

Plain 

36 to 40 

20c. to $1 

A light-weight, soft, bleached, musr 
lin suitable for dainty lingerie 
and children’s garments. 

or organdy. 

Outing 

Plain 

36 to 45 

25c. to $2 

Very fine, sheer, crisp material, 
in white and colors. Used for 
dresses, flowers, collars, and 
cuffs. “Permanent-finish” or¬ 
gandie retains crispness after 
laundering. 

flannel. . 

Plain 

27 and 36 

12 |c. to 40c. 

Similar to flannelette, with a nap 
on both sides. Made in colors, 
stripes, and checks. Used for 
sleeping and infants’ garments. 

Percale.... 

Plain 

36 

17c. to 50c. 

A close, firm fabric, plain and in 
colors. Used for dresses, shirts, 
and children’s clothes. 

Percaline. . 

Plain 

36 

35c. to 60c. 

Closely woven fabric with glazed 
or . watered finish. Used for 
linings and for drop skirts. 

Piqud. 

Cord 

27 to 36 

25c. to $1 

A firm fabric in lengthwise corded 
effect. Used for dresses, vests, 
trimmings, and coats. 

Poplin. . . . 

Plain 

27 to 40 

19c. to $1 

Fabric having fine crosswise ribs. 
Used for draperies, dresses, and 
children’s coats. Also made in 
silk and wool. 

Rep. 

Plain 

27 to 50 

25c.to$1.50 

Firm material woven with heavier 
weft than warp, giving it a ribbed 
effect. Used for draperies f 

dresses, and children’s coats. 















12 


COTTON 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Ratine.... 

Plain 

36 to 40 

50c.to$2.50 

Rough-surface fabric made with 
knotted yam. Used for summer 
suits and sports dresses. 

Sateen.... 

Satin 

36 

25c.to$1.25 

Closely woven material, with lus¬ 
trous, smooth finish, like that of 
satin. Used for dresses, under¬ 
skirts, and linings. Heavy 
quality known as surf satin. 

Scrim. 

Leno 

24 to 60 

29c. to $2 

Open-mesh weave in white, cream, 
and ecm; light in weight and 
transparent. Used for curtains. 

Seersucker. 

Plain 

24 to 36 

25c. to 50c. 

A thin fabric with an irregular, 
crimped surface. Used for 
dresses, coats, and underwear. 

Silesia. 

Plain 

36 

30c. to 60c. 

A light-weight fabric, similar to 
percaline; soon loses its luster. 
Used for linings. 

Silkaline.. . 

Plain 

36 

25c. to 55c. 

A thin, soft, glazed fabric. Used 
for draperies and comfortables. 

Soisette... 

Plain 

36 

35c. to 75c. 

Soft, mercerized fabric. Used 
for dresses, negligee shirts, and 
pajamas and sometimes for com¬ 
fortables. Soisette is a trade 

name. 

Swiss. 

Plain 

32 to 44 

25c. to $3 

A soft dress muslin, usually in 
cross-bar and dotted effects. 
Used for dresses and curtains. 

Tarlatan... 

Plain 

36 to 72 

19c. to 59c. 

Open-mesh, slightly stiffened fab¬ 
ric. Used for Christmas stock¬ 
ings, as a stiffening in garments, 
and for fancy costumes. 

Terry cloth 

Pile 

20 to 40 

15c.to$1.50 

Cloth woven with a raised loop 
giving a rough surface. Used 
principally for towels, draperies, 
and bath robes. 

Ticking. . . 

Twill 

32 and 36 

25c. to$ 1.25 

Firm fabric in stripes and in floral 
and herringbone patterns. Used 
for pillows and mattress covers. 

Velveteen.. 

Pile 

27 and 36 

$1 to $5 

A cotton velvet, with short, close 
pile. Used for dresses and chil¬ 
dren’s wraps and for draperies. 

Voile. 

Plain 

36 to 44 

25c.to$2.50 

Material having hard-twisted, 
warp and weft threads woven in 
open mesh. Used for dresses, 
lingerie, and curtains. 

















LINENS 


NATURE AND USES 

1. Linen was probably the first textile woven by man, for it is 
known to have been in use centuries before the Christian era. And 
the treatment given to the fibers in these early linens was so excel¬ 
lent that napkins discovered in the wrappings of mummies were 
not only well preserved but were able to withstand several washings. 
The Phenicians are said to have carried linen production into 
Ireland, where it has always been an important industry, linens 
from Ireland being in great demand because of their beauty. 

2. Linen has ever been regarded as the textile of luxury, for 
its rather high price, due to its methods of production, prevents it 
from being used as commonly as many of the other fabrics. It is 
used less frequently, also, because textile manufacturers have so 
perfected cotton materials, producing almost indescribable colors and 
weaves, that, whenever it is possible, cotton, which is much cheaper 
and does not wrinkle so easily, is substituted for linen. However, 
because of its sterling properties, there are some uses for which no 
substitute can be found for linen. This textile is practically free 
from lint, absorbs water very rapidly, gives up its moisture just 
as quickly, is easily cleansed, has exceptionally good endurance, 
can be had in the finest of fabrics, has threads that are smooth, 
strong, and lustrous, and is pure and hygienic for constant service. 
In addition, because of the length of its fiber, linen does not 
possess the fuzzy surface that characterizes cotton and that even¬ 
tually results in a gray and dingy look through the constant 
accumulation of dust. 



2 


LINENS 


3. The cost of linen is well justified for household and surgical 
purposes, as well as for wearing apparel, handkerchiefs, neckwear, 
and fancy work. Because of its long history, its reliability, its 
purity, its expense in production, its exclusive use for many 
needs, linen should receive a respect which can hardly be accorded 
to any other fabric. And every effort ought to be exerted to 
prolong the life of a piece of linen to the fullest extent. Table¬ 
cloths, napkins, and other household linens should be laundered 
with the greatest care, as well as mended to make them last as 
long as possible. Housewives of today may well emulate the 
women of olden times, who spent more time caring for the treasures 
they had acquired and less time in procuring new things than we do. 


PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURE 

4. Cultivation of Plant. —Linen is made from the fiber 
contained in the stalk of flax, an annual plant that may be produced 
in nearly all climates. Practically all European countries cultivate 
flax for the fiber, while India and the United States cultivate it for 
the seed and its products. When full grown, the flax plant, which 
has an erect, slight, and willowy stem, ranges from 20 to 40 inches 
high, and has small flowers that vary in color in the different 
varieties from pale yellow to bright blue. In the cultivation of 
flax, successive plantings are not made in the same ground, for it 
requires well-cultivated and well-nourished soil, an interval of from 
5 to 10 years being allowed between flax plantings in Belgium. 
It is planted early in the spring, and as soon as it is a few inches 
high the women and children begin to weed the plants. In late 
July the harvesting begins, the flax being in the best state for 
fiber when the leaves and the stem of the lower part of the plant 
turn yellow and the seed pods begin to open. Instead of being 
cut, the flax plants are pulled up by the roots a handful at a time 
so as to save all of the precious, long fiber possible. 

5. Removing Leaves and Seeds. —The manufacture of 
flax into linen consumes much time and, for the finer grades of 
linen, requires much hand work. After the flax is harvested, it is 
allowed to dry and the seeds are then removed from the stalks. 
Then the stalks are rippled , that is, they are separated from the 
leaves and any seeds that may still be attached by being drawn 
through a large iron comb. 



LINENS 


3 


6. Retting. —The next process through which the flax is 
put is called retting, the purpose of which is to separate the fiber 
from the bark and the woody core. It is accomplished by cold water, 
steam, dew, or in a chemical way, but the most satisfactory method 
for color and strength is by cold water. This is sometimes done in 
the neighboring streams, as in the river Lys in Belgium, this being 
one of the best known flax-raising districts in the world. 

7. When the cold-water method is employed, the flax is put 
in open crates of wood, which are covered on the four sides with 
jute burlap, often from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds being put into one 
crate. The crates are covered with fresh straw, are floated in 
position in the stream, and then are weighted down with stones and 
sod until they are entirely covered with water. They are left in 
the water until the flax is sufficiently fermented, usually 14 or 15 
days, the crate then rising above the water and bubbles appearing 
on the surface. Sometimes, for very fine fiber, the flax is removed 
from the water after 5 days, dried for a part of a day, and then put 
back for further action. 

8. A different method is that practiced in Ireland, the flax 
being placed in stagnant pools of water. But the color of the linen 
is not so good when this kind of retting is done. In Russia, the 
fiber is left on the field to be retted by the dew. Retting is also 
done with the use of chemicals, but as these are apt to harm the 
fiber, this method is used less often than the natural ones. 

9. Breaking and Scutching. —After being retted, the bundles 
are allowed to dry for a short time and are then turned inside out 
so that the air will reach all parts of the flax. As the fiber dries ; 
it bleaches and becomes pretty well separated from the bark and 
woody pitch. It must be put through still more processes, known 
as breaking and scutching, or beating, before it is thoroughly 
cleaned of the particles of straw and dirt that cling to it. The 
linen hackle performs the service for linen that the card does for 
cotton in its manufacture; that is, it lays the fibers in order and 
removes all the short lengths of fiber that are known as tow , which 
is rescutched, spun like cotton, and used for coarse cloths. Some¬ 
times the scutching is done by hand and sometimes by machine, 
but hand-scutching is considered less wearing on the linen. 


4 


LINENS 


10. Hackling and Drawing. —For very fine yarns, the fiber 
is sorted and cut into three divisions. The middle cut is the 
best and is known as cut line. 

Before being spun, the fiber is combed many times and then put 
through a series of hackling machines to clean it more thoroughly 
and to separate the line from the tow. At the end of this treat¬ 
ment, the line is smooth, fine, and glossy. After being sorted 
and cut, it is again put into a machine and combed through fine 
wires, until it is made into a continuous ribbon or sliver. This 
process, which is called drawing, is repeated in other machines 
according to the fineness of the thread desired. 

11. Spinning. —The spinning of the flax, which is the next 
process, is done by the wet, dry, or semidry method, depending 
on the purpose for which it is to be used. The tow is treated 
differently from the line, it being spun much like cotton. Dry- 
spun flax is more silky and has a greater firmness than that produced 
by wet spinning, but it is not so fine. The thread produced by wet 
spinning is twisted tighter and the flax is more subdivided, but 
these points are an advantage for certain classes of thread. Care 
must be used in wet spinning, however, to have the yam dried 
quickly in order to avoid the forming of mold. 

12. Sizing, Bleaching, Weaving. —With the spinning of 
the thread completed, it is usually sized to give it strength, and 
then it is often bleached wholly or partly before it is woven. The 
weaving, as can well be understood, depends on the purpose for 
which the linen is to be used. Sheetings, lawn, and cambrics are 
done in plain weaves, while towelings usually show twills. Damasks 
are generally woven on the Jacquard loom, and these cloths can 
be used on either side. 

13. Finishing Processes. —The finishing of linen cloth 
does not vary greatly for the different weaves. After being woven, 
the web of cloth is bleached. Chemical bleaching, dew bleaching , 
and grass bleaching are in use. In Ireland, where grass bleaching is 
the method used, the cloths are spread out on large grass plots, 
where they become a snowy white upon being subjected to the 
rain and sunshine. In addition to being bleached, linen is often 
washed, blued, starched, and mangled. 






LINENS 


5 


14. Dressing is needed to some extent in even the best linens 
to bring out their designs. In poor grades, it is used to cover the 
defects of the linen. Different dressings are used to obtain different 
effects in the finished material. 

15. Beetling gives linen its “leathery” feel. After the cloth is 
dampened, it is placed on a roll and is struck with a series of wooden 
mallets to give it the flat appearance that is so familiar to every 
one. The final processes include calendering, pressing, inspecting, 
folding, marking, and packing. 

16. Countries Producing Linen. —The linens produced in 
the various countries seem to possess distinctive characteristics. 
Linen from Ireland has the distinction of being the purest white of 
all linens, and while it is not always showy, it possesses the best 
appearance and wearing qualities. The dazzling whiteness of 
Irish linen has been compared to new snow on which the sun is 
shining. These qualities are perhaps due to the climate in which 
the flax is raised, as well as to the method of bleaching, nearly all 
Irish linen being bleached on the grass, where it is subjected to 
sunshine and rain. Belfast, Ireland, is noted for its excellent wear¬ 
ing Irish linen. 

In Scotland is produced linen that is much in favor, too, as 
it is usually sun- and grass-bleached, this method of bleaching being 
less injurious to the fibers than bleaching methods in which chemicals 
are employed. Scotch linens, as a rule, are much heavier and more 
showy in pattern than Irish linens. 

The linen made in France is noted for its beautiful patterns, and 
especially is this true of French table linens. The French, as a 
rule, spin their linen thread round and fine with the result that 
they are able to produce some unique weaves and designs. Many 
linen dress fabrics are produced in France, too. 

Belgium grows the finest flax of any country in the world, and 
the Belgians weave many beautiful linens as a result of having 
splendid material with which to work; also, they manufacture the 
finest linen threads used in lace making. It is said that the Belgians 
use more dressings in their linens than do the Irish. 

The linen produced in Germany and Austria is silver white in 
color and very fine in texture and is produced in beautiful designs. 
Germany produces great quantities of unbleached table linen, also, 
which many prudent housewives buy and then bleach. The bleach- 


6 


LINENS 


ing is done by placing the muslin, every time it is washed, on the 
grass, where it is allowed to dry and at the same time is acted on by 
dew and sunshine. 

The United States imports practically all its linen, and this fact 
accounts to a great extent for the seemingly high price of pure linen 
in America. In this country, the raising of flax has not reached a 
point to be profitable, except for the seeds and the making of 
linen thread and coarse linen toweling. America is recognized 
everywhere as the chief cotton-producing country, but Europe 
claims all honors in regard to linen fabrics. 

Experiments in flax production, however, indicate that flax can 
be raised in the northwestern part of the United States. New 
York state, also, has produced flax from which linen has been woven. 


PURCHASING LINENS 


TESTS FOR LINEN 

17. It is often a very difficult matter to distinguish between 
linens and fine cotton fabrics, especially when the cottons are 
slightly starched and ironed with a gloss. Consequently, much care 
should be exercised in the purchase of linens. Many authorities 
contend that only with a microscope or by mjans of certain chemi¬ 
cal tests is it possible to distinguish linen from fine cotton. Of 
course, such tests are impossible to make when shopping; neverthe¬ 
less, until the government passes laws that insist on pure, unadul¬ 
terated cloth, certain precautions must be taken in buying linens. 
And there are a few tests that can readily be applied and that 
should be familiar to every housewife. 

18. Because of the absorbing quality of linen, some kinds may 
be tested by pressing a dampened, or moistened, finger on the 
wrong side of the material. If the moisture is taken up quickly 
and shows through considerably, this is a fairly good indication 
that the material is linen. If the material is cotton, the frayed 
warp and weft threads will take up the moisture before it can 
penetrate the material. It takes an excellent cotton fabric to 
withstand a test of this kind. 




LINENS 


7 


19. Another test for linen that may be quickly made consists 
in pulling out a thread and jerking it in two. If the thread breaks 
easily and the ends appear fluffy or fuzzy, similar to cotton twine 
when it is broken, the material is cotton. If, though, the thread 
breaks hard and the ends show an uneven, drawn-out break caused 
by the flax threads, which form the strand of warp or weft, not 
being broken off abruptly, it is almost certain that the fabric is good 
linen. Pressing the material firmly between the thumb and fore¬ 
finger will help to determine whether it is all linen or contains some 
cotton, for if it fuzzes up, it gives evidence of cotton. 

20. A drop of glycerine on unsized linen makes it appear 
transparent, but does not have this effect on cotton. This is, there¬ 
fore, a very good, as well as a very simple, test. 

21. A test that may easily be made and that will aid in deciding 
definitely whether a given fabric is cotton or linen consists in plac¬ 
ing a sample in a strong solution of washing soda. Both cotton and 
linen will shrink in this solution, but cotton will become a light 
gray, whereas linen will turn a faint yellow. 

Another test is to drop the sample into a boiling solution of 
caustic potash, which may be purchased in any drug store, and 
let it remain there a few minutes. If it is linen, it will turn dark 
yellow, while if it is cotton it will remain nearly white or turn a 
light yellow. 

22. The tests given for finding the amount of dressing in cotton 

can be followed to very good advantage when testing linen cloth, 
namely, holding the material up to the light or rubbing it in the 
hands. If the linen is colored, the tests given under cotton for 
exposing the material to the light and washing it may also be 
employed. _ 

TABLE OF LINENS 

23. Table II gives the name, the usual width, and the usual 
price per yard of all linens in general use. In connection with each 
kind of linen are also mentioned its nature and the purpose for which 
it is commonly used. As is true of similar tables of materials, this 
information will be of valuable assistance to all women in the 
selection of linens for garments and other purposes. 



8 


LINENS 


TABLE II 
LINEN MATERIALS 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Art linen. . 
Butcher’s 

Plain 

18 to 45 

69c. to $3 

Smooth fabric with flat thread, 
for stenciling and embroidery. 

linen.... 

Plain 

36 

$1 

A coarse, durable weave of long- 
fiber linen. Used for butchers’ 
aprons, fancy work, dresses, and 
suits. Also made in cotton. 

Cambric.. . 

Plain 

36 and 45 

$1.25 to $5 

Sheer, crisp fabric. Used for lin¬ 
gerie dresses and handkerchiefs. 

Canvas.... 

Plain 

18, 27, 32 

30c.to$1.50 

A coarse, firm material. Used as a 
body in tailored coats and some¬ 
times in upholstery. 

Crash.... 1 
Crash i 

Plain 

36 and 45 

65c. to $2 f 

A coarse weave with even weft 
threads. Used for towels and 

toweling J 


18 

25c. up [ 

fancy work. 

Damask... 

Satin and 
Jacquard 

15 to 108 

$2.50 to $15 

Firm, glossy linen generally made 
in brocaded figures. Used for 
towels and table linen. 

Diaper. . . . 

Figure 

18 to 36 

40c. up 

See Diaper, Table I. 

Dress linen 

Glass 

Plain 

16,18, 22, 
36, 45 

50c. to $5 

A plain, firmly woven material in 
either white or colors. Used for 
blouses, dresses, and towels. 

toweling 

Handker¬ 

Plain 

16 and 24 

15c. to 60c. 

A soft, fine, loosely woven material, 
usually having blue or red stripes 
or checks. Used for towels. 

chief linen 

Plain 

36 and 45 

$1 to $5 

A sheer, fine, fabric; launders well. 
Generally made of Irish linen. 
Used for handkerchiefs, neck¬ 
wear, blouses, and dresses. 

Holland. . . 

Plain 

32 to 60 

$1 to $2 

Coarse, firm weave. Used for win¬ 
dow shades and in photography. 

Huckaback 

Figure 

15 to 27 

75c. to $3 

Weft threads prominent; warp 
threads often of cotton. Used 
for towels and fancy work. 

Lawn. 

Round- 

thread 

Plain 

36 

50c. to $1 

Fine, sheer fabric made of short 
linen fibers. Used for handker¬ 
chiefs and baby clothes. 

linen... . 

Plain 

18 to 54 

.$1 to $4 

Soft-finished material, made with 
round, hard-twisted yam. Suit¬ 
able for drawn work, hand hem¬ 
stitching, and hardanger work. 

Sheeting.. . 

Plain 

36 to 108 

$1 to $10 

Used for pillow cases, sheets, towels, 
wash dresses, and suits. 














WOOL 


WOOL PRODUCTION 

1. Origin. —Wool is the soft, hairy covering of sheep and 
certain allied animals, clipped from the animal and manufactured 
into fabrics of various kinds. Whether it was first produced 
by the Egyptians or the Greeks is a question of doubt, but 
it is sufficient to know that the sheep has been a domesticated 
animal from prehistoric times, for its bones have been found with 
those of human beings in ancient tombs. All down through the 
ages, to the time when cotton manufacture became an important 
industry, wool was the leading staple of commerce, figuring con¬ 
spicuously in the prosperity of many nations. Now, it follows cotton 
in importance among textiles, but its production and manufacture 
are still leading industries in various parts of the world. 

2. Wool Supply. —The wool fiber varies greatly as to length 
and nature, some of it being short, soft, dull, and crimpy, and other 
varieties being long, silky, and lustrous. The merinos, which 
include the Spanish, the Saxony Electoral, and the French, or 
Rambouillet, are prominent among the short-fibered sheep, while 
the Leicester, Lincoln, Cots wold, Romney Marshes, and Devons 
are among the long-fibered producers. 

Besides sheep, the llama, the alpaca, the angora goat, the Cash- 
mere goat, and the camel are all sources of wool fiber, some of them 
producing inferior grades and others, as the Cashmere goat of the 
Himalaya Mountain regions, yielding the most expensive wool 
grown. 

3. Australia, South America, and the United States have long 
been the leaders in wool production. Australia is noted for the 



2 


WOOL 


merino with its fine, short fiber; England is the chief producer of the 
long, lustrous wool; Russia produces coarse wools used in making 
carpets; the United States is known for producing a cross-bred sheep, 
which has a soft, strong fiber longer than the merino. Numerous 
other countries, including France, Germany, New Zealand, South 
Africa, and various parts of Asia, figure prominently in sheep raising 
for wool production. 

The raising of sheep requires considerable care if fleece of the 
best quality is to be had. Sheep breeders work for a good, dense 
fleece that contains as few burrs and other impurities, such as dirt, 
dust, and straw, as possible. The shearing life of a sheep is about 
5 years. Then, it is usually fattened and sold for mutton. 

4, The variation in wool fiber, which runs from 2 to 20 
inches, was formerly responsible for the two kinds of wool 
material produced—woolens and worsteds. The short, curly fibers, 
which contain many serrations, or scales, were used for woolens 
because they are inclined to pull up together when subjected to 
moist heat. It is just this shrinking quality that is needed in the 
making of such materials as broadcloth and flannel. The long 
fibers were used for the worsteds, which are made of tightly twisted 
yam and consequently show the pattern of their weaving plainly, 
as in the case of serges, prunellas, and similar materials. Now, 
however, machinery has been devised that can comb the very 
shortest yarns, so the difference between woolens and worsteds 
has become a matter of the way in which the yam is prepared. 


WOOL MANUFACTURE 


FIRST PROCESSES 

5. The first step in the manufacture of wool into cloth is the 
removing of the fleece from the sheep. Formerly, this was all 
done by hand, but now much of the sheep shearing is done by 
power. Skilful handling of the animals is needed to prevent cutting 
or injuring them in the shearing. 

The fleece is cut so that it is all left in one piece, a fleece averag¬ 
ing from 5 to 12 pounds, although the fleece from a heavy merino 
often runs as high as 30 pounds. These fleeces are tied securely 




WOOL 


3 


in a bundle and put into a large sack, which, after being packed full, 
is fastened securely and shipped to the market. 

6. Sorting. —When the fleeces arrive at the mill, they are 
very dirty and greasy, and often contain burrs, straw, and even 
anthrax germs. The wool must first be sorted into its different 
grades by a worker known as a wool sorter. This is a very dis¬ 
agreeable task, but it is an extremely important one, for on it 
depends much of the beauty of the finished yarn. In separating 
the fleece, which is a hand process, the sorter places it in piles or 
bins according to its quality. From these, it goes to the cleaning 
machines, each process forming a part of a train of machines 
which prepare the wool for spinning. 

7. Dusting. —Very often wool contains so many impurities 
that it must be relieved of some of them before it can be washed. 
In some mills, it is put through the duster, which opens the fleece 
by means of coarse teeth, or spikes, and then removes much of the 
dirt by means of a fan. 

8. Scouring. —When the fleece is taken from the sheep, it 
contains a greasy substance, known as yolk , which is caused by the 
animal secretions and the perspiration of the skin. The removal 
of the yolk is accomplished by the scouring process, which 
consists in putting the wool through various baths of warm water 
and certain chemicals, such as potash, ammonium carbonate, and 
soda, each mill having its own formula for the desired results. 
Much care must be used in scouring or the fiber may be harmed. 
From the last bath, it comes out thoroughly rinsed and then, 
unless it is to be dyed wet, it is dried, first in a cylindrical container 
by means of a whirling motion, which drives out excess moisture, 
and then by being carried over hot pipes or by means of hot air. 

9. Carbonizing. —When wool contains a great many burrs, 
it must be put through a process that removes these before it can 
be carded and spun. Carbonizing, which consists of treating the 
wool to a solution of sulphuric acid that is not strong enough to 
injure the fiber and yet will singe the vegetable matter, is con¬ 
sidered the best method of removing the burrs. The wool is 
then rinsed in a solution of soda and water and finally baked until 
the vegetable matter is destroyed. To remove the dried vegetable 
material, the wool is dusted. 


4 


WOOL 


10. Blending. —With the wool relieved of its impurities, 
it is usually blended to produce a combination of colors or of 
varieties of fiber. This is a process that requires considerable 
experience, for the blender must understand the mixing of colors 
in order to produce the desired effects. 

11. Oiling. —By this time, the wool has lost practically all of 
its natural oil and it must be reoiled in order to pass through the 
remaining processes easily. The oiling may be done by hand or the 
wool may be sprayed with machinery as it passes from one machine 
to another. Various oils are used for this purpose, chief among 
which are olive oil and tallow oil. 


MANUFACTURE OF WOOLENS 

12. After the oiling of the wool fiber, the processes for the 
manufacture of woolens and worsteds begin to differ. When 
wool fiber is intended for woolens, such as underwear, flannel, 
broadcloth, and similar materials, the processes through which it 
passes are fewer in number and of a simpler nature than when it is 
to be made into worsteds. This is due to the fact that, for woolens, 
the fibers need only be cleaned and mixed, whereas for worsteds 
they must also be combed sufficiently to make them lie entirely 
parallel. 

13. Picking. —The fibers are usually in a rather entangled 
condition after scouring and drying, so they must be put through 
a machine that opens them and then mixes them in preparation 
for the next process. This is known as picking. 

14. Carding.—The process of carding, which usually involves 
the use of three machines, is the most important one in the manu¬ 
facture of woolens. The first machine is sometimes provided with 
an arrangement whereby the fiber is mixed, and it always contains 
some means of combing the wool into a fine, even feed, or sliver, 
so that it passes easily into the next machine. In the second card, 
the wool is often transformed into a wide sliver and then laid diag¬ 
onally into the feed, which deposits it so that one layer is half 
over the other and still alongside of it. In the third machine, the 
wool is fed from the side of the sliver so that it becomes well mixed 
and is prevented from lying in the parallel rows that the teeth 



WOOL 


5 


of the card naturally produce. From the last card, the fiber is put 
through rub rolls and then wound on bobbins in a slightly twisted 
form ready for spinning, or it is sent to the drawing frames where 
it is further prepared to be spun. 

15. Spinning. —The mule frame is generally employed for the 
spinning of woolen yam because its intermittent motion makes it 
especially adapted to the twisting of soft, short yarns. In the 
spinning frame, the yam is wound on bobbins ready to be woven. 

16. Weaving. —If the yarn is to be dyed before weaving, it is 
first wound into skeins and then dyed. Either undyed or dyed, 
it is woven into materials of various kinds, including broadcloths, 
flannels, chinchillas, blankets, as well as numerous sorts of knitted 
and crocheted goods. The chief characteristic of woolen weaves 
is that they are soft and practically concealed. 

17. Finishing Processes. —After woolen cloth is woven, 

it must be put through certain finishing processes before it is ready 
for the market. Fulling shrinks it and makes it appear more 
closely woven. Napping, which is done by a machine having wire- 
cloth rollers, raises the nap of the material. Then, it is often 
sheared if a smooth, glossy material, such as broadcloth, is desired. 
Pressing and calendering follow, after which the material is bolted 
and ready for the market. _ 


manufacture of worsteds 

18. The chief difference between woolens and worsteds is that 
in the making of worsted yam the fibers must be combed to make 
them lie parallel before they are twisted into thread. This involves 
much more work and the yarn must be put through many more 
processes than for woolens, so worsteds are usually more expensive 
fabrics. They are characterized by a firm, even, close-twisted 
yarn and by weaves that are usually distinguishable, as in the case of 
serges. 

19. Carding. —The process of carding, while it forms a part 
of the manufacture of all worsteds, is not so important as in woolens. 
For very long yarn, the fibers are put through only one carding 
process for the purpose of straightening the fibers in preparation 
for the comb. If a short yarn is to be used, it must be carded 
oftener. 


5D—4 



6 


WOOL 


20. Gilling. —The purpose of the gilling machines is to 
prepare the fibers for the combs. Often, a number of slivers are 
united and then they must be straightened and laid parallel so 
that they can be fed properly into the combing machine. 

21. Combing. —The combing of the fiber is the most important 
step in worsted manufacture. The comb separates the fiber into 
the long, straight wool, which is called tops , and the short, curly 
wool called noils. The tops, which are the ones used for worsteds, 
are sent to another machine that lays the long fibers as nearly 
parallel as possible. The noils are removed and then either com¬ 
bined with pure wool for certain materials in the mill itself or sold 
to other manufacturers. When the wool leaves the combing and 
gilling machines, it is in the form of a good-sized sliver wound into 
a ball that can be easily unwound. 

22. Drawing and Doubling. —The yarn must be consider¬ 
ably reduced in size to make it suitable for spinning, so it is put 
through the drawing and doubling machines. These processes 
are repeated as many times as necessary to make the sliver the 
right size. In some yarns, a slight twist is given to the wool at 
this time, but in many the twisting is not done until just before the 
spinning. The wool is next wound on bobbins. 

23. Spinning. —In the spinning of worsted yarns, two methods 
are followed: the English and the French. The English system 
oils the wool before combing and consequently produces a smooth, 
lustrous, tightly twisted yarn. The French method uses very 
little oil and so is often called dry spinning. It uses a much shorter 
fiber than the English system and produces a soft, dull, loosely 
twisted yarn. 

24. Finishing Processes. —From the spinning frames, the 
yam comes on bobbins and is ready for dyeing, weaving, and sizing. 
If it is to be dyed before spinning, it is run off into skeins or hanks 
and then wound again after the dyeing. Sizing, which strengthens 
the yarn and which is done in the case of most single yarns, may 
be done either before or after weaving. As worsteds depend for 
their beauty on their weave, the weaving of them, as well as the 
finishing processes of napping, shearing, boiling, steaming, and 
pressing, differs somewhat from that of woolens and at the same 
time requires much care and skill. 


WOOL 


7 


PURCHASING WOOL MATERIALS 


TESTS FOR WOOL 

25c All wool fabrics should be carefully examined to see 
whether they are absolutely clean and free from signs of shop 
wear, such as faded lines on the outside folds, spots, dust streaks, 
or pulled thread. Such goods may often be bought at a lowered 
price and, if time is not at a premium, may be cleaned, sponged, and 
pressed so that they appear satisfactory. 

The color of wool fabrics, also, should receive attention. Note 
whether they are dyed evenly and whether the color is such that it 
will withstand the sponging and pressing required in both the making 
and the renovating of the garment. It is always well to examine 
material by daylight or “daylight lamps” in considering its color. 

26. Fiber Test. —Sometimes wool materials are adulterated 
by cheaper materials, such as shoddy, cotton, and the waste from 
silk and wool machines. If you wish to know whether a material 
is all wool, ravel a little of it and examine the fibers. You will 
find that wool fiber is kinky, whereas other fibers are usually 
straight. Then try breaking a thread. The wool fibers pull apart 
rather than break, whereas cotton fibers, upon breaking, have 
tufted, fuzzy ends. 

27. Physical Condition. —Much can be told from the 
“feel” of a material. A pure-wool fabric feels soft to the touch, 
whereas a wool mixture feels harsh and stiff. It is true, of course, 
that worsteds are stiffer than woolens, but there is a vast difference 
between the “feel” of worsteds and that of a wool material contain¬ 
ing cotton or other substitute. Every effort should be made to 
train the hand to recognize the “feel” of the best wool, for this 
ability comes chiefly through experience in handling materials. 

28. Design and Weave. —In the selection of wool materials, 
the design and weave should be carefully examined. A good plan 
is to place the cloth between you and the light, for then the design 
can be seen to advantage and any imperfections it may contain 
can be easily detected. 



8 


WOOL 


29. The weave of woolen fabrics affects the wearing quality, 
the color, the construction, and the success of the finished garment 
itself. A close, twilled weave makes a firm, durable material, 
while loose, open weaves are apt to lose their shape and wear poorly. 
On the other hand, the close weaves, although they wear better and 
are less likely to catch on rough surfaces or sharp projections, 
become shiny rather quickly. Looseness of weave can be detected 
by pulling the material back and forth. If, when pulled apart, 
the threads separate easily and show daylight through them, you 
may consider the weave too loose to wear well. 

Weakness in the material may be due to imperfections in weaving 
or to too great a difference between the strength ot the warp and 
the weft threads. Exposing the material to the light or pressing 
it firmly with the thumb and the fingers will help to detect such 
weaknesses. 

Crushing the material in the hands and rubbing it together will 
show, with a fair degree of accuracy, how the fabric will wear, for 
roughness of the surface will be brought out just as in wearing. 

Materials having cords or ribs running one way are weaker than 
those in which the cords or ribs run in both directions, for if cords 
are to be brought out prominently one of the threads must be 
combined with threads that are finer and more loosely woven. 

30. Test for Shoddy. —Until recent years, shoddy was looked 
down on because it was thought to be only waste thrown off in wool 
spinning. This, however, is a mistaken idea, for shoddy is in 
reality the shredded wool of old cloth reduced to short fibers for 
the purpose of being used again. A small amount of shoddy mixed 
with new wool is not a serious detriment, provided the shoddy is 
good, for some very splendid materials contain shoddy. The 
best shoddy is made from clippings of new cloth, such as those 
received from tailoring establishments, but discarded wool of other 
kinds is cleaned by manufacturing processes and then worked up 
again into actually serviceable materials. 

The necessity for testing wool materials for shoddy is not that 
they should be avoided, but that their price be commensurate with 
the shoddy used. The distinguishing feature of shoddy is that it 
has very short fibers, so short that they cannot be combed. This 
is one of the ways by which it can be detected. Sometimes, shoddy 
is felted on the back of poor broadcloth to make it appear thick and 


WOOL 


9 


heavy. Whether or not this has been done can be determined 
by brushing the back of the material. If a dust is raised, the use 
of shoddy is a certainty. 

An excessive amount of shoddy in material makes it less elastic 
than pure wool. So, examining a fabric to determine its elasticity 
is another test for shoddy. 

TABLE OF WOOLS 

31. Table III is given to help in the selection, purchase, and 
use of wool fabrics. As in the case of similar tables, the weave, 
the width, the usual price, and a brief description are given for each 
material mentioned. In reusing materials, especially wool fabrics, 
many women find uses not mentioned here, for this table, like the 
others, considers the appropriate uses of only new fabrics. These 
however, need not serve when economy must be taken into consid¬ 
eration. 


TABLE III 

WOOLS 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Albatross.. 

Twill 

32 to 45 

75c., 

$1 to $2.50 

Soft, loosely woven, crepe-like 
material, sometimes made in 
fancy weaves. Closely related to 
nun’s veiling. Used for shirred 
and draped dresses. 

Alpaca.... 

Plain 

36 to 54 

65c. to $4 

Strong, elastic fabric with the 
gloss of silk, and having fine 
cotton and wool-like hair filling. 
Used for men’s summer suits, 
and for skirts and coat linings. 

Armure.... 

Figure 

36 to 45 

$1 to $4 

Similar to alpaca and used for the 
same purposes. Woven in 

bird’s-eye and diamond effect, 
sometimes in two colors. 

Astrakhan. 

Pile 

48 to 54 

$4.50 to $15 

A woolen or silk material in imita¬ 
tion of real astrakhan. Used for 
coats for men, women, and chil¬ 
dren; for caps, muffs, and scarfs. 

Barathea. . 

Plain 

48 to 56 

$2 to $6 

Fine, soft, close weave in pebble or 
broken - rib effect. Generally 
made with silk or cotton warp 
and worsted filling. Excellent 
for dresses and light-weight suits. 











10 


WOOL 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Widtl 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Batiste.... 

Bedford 

Plain 

36 to 44 

$1 to $3 

Light-weight, all-wool material 
with even warp and weft in 
plain colors; sometimes called 
tamise; in very light-weight, 
called chiffon batiste. Used for 
women’s and children’s dresses. 

cord.... 

Cord 

36 to 54 

$2.50 to $6 

Material with lengthwise cords, 
that is, raised surface with plain 
stripes between; in cotton and 
wool. Used for tailored skirts 
and suits. 

Bengaline.. 

Bolivia 

Plain 

36 to 54 

$2 to $4 

Firm, light-weight goods having 
silk warp and heavy woolen fill¬ 
ing forming ribbed effect 
heavier than poplin. Also made 
in cotton and silk. 

cloth.... 

Pile 

54 

$4.50 to $11 

A soft, all-wool material woven like 
velvet. Used for coats. 

Boucle .... 

Twill 

40 to 54 

$2 to $6 

Medium-weight fabric having rough 
but soft surface produced by 
nub, or loop-yam, filling. Used 
for coats. 

Brilliantine 

Plain 

36 to 54 

$1 to $4 

Wiry, silk-wool fabric, similar to 
alpaca, but of higher luster; 
made from angora-goat hair. 
Used the same as alpaca. This 
is the fine weave of mohair. 

Broadcloth 

Twill 

48 to 56 

$2.50 to 
$6.50 

Smooth, soft-finished, closely woven 
fabric with a nap. Generally 
popular for dresses, suits, and 
coats. 

Brocade.. . 

Camel’s 

Jacquard 

40 and 45 

$2 to $8 

Soft material woven with raised 
patterns. Used for dresses and 
wraps. Sometimes silk and wool. 

hair. 

Plain 

42 to 54 

$4.50 to $10 

A fabric with a hairy surface made 
entirely or partly of camel’s hair. 
In cheaper grades, cow hair is 
used. Used for coats, over¬ 
coats, and horse blankets. 

Cashmere.. 

Twill 

36 and 45 

$1 to $15 

A soft fabric in beautiful shades 
and sometimes woven in figures, 
especially Paisley. Attractive 
for women’s dresses and for chil- 
ren and infants’ wear. 




















WOOL 


11 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Challis. . . . 

Plain 

27 to 36 

$1 to $2 

Light-weight, soft material. Has 





beautiful, plain, and printed 
color combinations; wears 

satisfactorily; and is easily 
cleaned. Excellent for dresses, 
negligees, and children’s wear. 

Charmeen. 

Twill 

54 

$3.50 up 

A very fine, closely woven material 





resembling Poiret twill, but 
' finer. Charmeen is a trade name. 

Cheviot. . . 

Plain and 

36 to 54 

$1.25 to 

Material with slight nap; usually 


Twill 


$5.50 

heavy-weight. Requires care in 
tailoring, especially in pressing. 
Used for suits and coats. 

Chinchilla. 

Pile 

44 to 60 

$3.50 to 

Very fine, closely woven fabric in 




$7.50 

imitation of fur. Used for heavy 

Covert 




coats and for men’s overcoats. 

cloth.. . . 

Twill 

44 and 54 

$3 to $8 

Smooth-finished material of firm, 





diagonal weave. Wears well 
and tailors nicely. Used for 
dresses, suits, and wraps. 

Cr6pe, wool 

Plain 

36 to 54 

$1.75 to $5 

Material having tightly twisted 




weft thread giving a crinkled ef¬ 
fect ; sometimes called Sponge. Ex¬ 
tensively used for dresses. Some 
crapes come in silk and wool. 



Doeskin.. . 

Twill 

40 to 48 

$9 up 

A compact, woolen fabric with a 




texture that is pliable without 
being flimsy. Used for gloves, 
skirts, coats, hats, wraps, and for 
linings in heavy fur coats. 



Drap 
d’alma. . 

Twill 

50 to 56 

$3 to $6 

Light-weight material of soft tex¬ 



ture in ribbed effect. Used for 
dresses and suits. 



Duvetyn. . 

Plain 

18 to 54 

$3.50 to 

Soft, medium-weight material with 


$20 

a short, downy nap. Used for 
children’s coats and women’s 







suits and coats. 

Eiderdown. 

Knitted 

27 to 44 

$1 to $4 

Soft, knitted foundation usually of 



cotton threads with a thick, soft, 
wool surface. Used for bath¬ 
robes, children’s coats, and 
baby-carriage robes. 







Epingle.... 

Plain 

36 to 54 

$1.50 to 
$5.50 

Smooth, ribbed weave, the rib 
running across the material. 




Used for dresses and light suits. 





















12 


WOOL 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Etamine.. . 

Plain 

40 

$2.50 

Light-weight, glossy, loosely woven 
fabric. Used for dresses. 

Felt. 

Felted 

not 

woven 

18 to 45 

$3 to $10 

A thick, firm-packed, smooth fab¬ 
ric. Used for hats, table 
covers, pennants, and cushions. 

Flannel.... 

Plain and 
Twill 

27 to 54 

85c. to $8 

Plain, soft, loosely woven material 
with warp and weft threads of 
equal size. Used for infants’ 
clothes, women’s wear, and 
men’s shirts. 

Gabardine. 

Twill 

46 to 54 

$2 to $6.50 

Firmly woven cloth in fine, di¬ 
agonal-ribbed effect. Used for 
women’s skirts, coats, and suits. 

Georgette.. 

Plain 

54 

$2 to $4.50 

A sheer fine fabric woven of firmly 
twisted threads to give a crepe¬ 
like surface. Suitable for dressy 
frocks when the warmth of wool 
is desirable. 

Granite.... 

Figure 

36, 39, 54 

$1.50 to $4 

Hard-twisted woolen yam woven 
in pebbled effect; light and dur¬ 
able. Used for dresses and 
suits. Requires care in tailoring. 
Some grades have a cotton warp. 

Henrietta.. 

Twill 

36 to 44 

$1 to $4 

A fabric similar to cashmere, but 
with a harder, coarser weave. 
Used the same as cashmere. 

Homespun. 

Plain 

42 to 54 

$2 up 

A loose, rough material of plain 
weave and coarse, soft yarn. 
Formerly made on hand looms at 
home; now imitated by machine. 
Tailors well. Used for outing 
suits and men’s clothes. 

Hopsacking 

Plain 

50 and 54 

$1.50 to 
$2.50 

Rough-surface material, usually of 
coarse weave and similar to bag¬ 
ging. Used for coats and suits. 

Jean. 

Twill and 
Plain 

36 to 40 

50c. to $3 

A stout material made with hard 
cotton warp and a low-grade, 
wool filling. Used for work 
trousers, uniforms, and boys’ 
suits. 

Jersey cloth 

Knitted 

27 to 60 

$2 to $4.50 

Serviceable woolen or silk mixed 
material having elastic proper¬ 
ties. Used for undergarments, 
petticoats, dresses, and suits. 
Comes frequently in tube form. 














WOOL 


13 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Karakul 
cloth.... 

Pile 

48 and 50 

$3.75 to $15 

Made in imitation of Persian lamb¬ 

Kasha. 

Twill 

54 

$4.50 to 

skin, which has short hair tightly 
curled to the body. Used for 
coats and for muffs and scarfs. 
Considered the finest wool cloth 

Kersey.. .. 

Twill 

48 to 60 

$10.50 

$4 to $10 

made. Originated by Paul 
Rodier, French fabric designer 
and manufacturer. Made of 
camel’s hair. Very soft and 
pliant. Does not become shiny 
with wear. Used for dresses and 
suits. Kasha is a trade name. 

A stout, heavy cloth with a close 

Lansdowne 

Twill 

36 to 40 

$2.50 to $4 

nap. Does not fray nor stretch 
easily. Used for suits, capes, 
and overcoats. 

A very fine, wiry material made 

Matelasse . 

Figure 

40 to 54 

$2 to $10 

with silk warp and worsted fill¬ 
ing. Used mostly for dresses. 
Material having raised designs 

Melton.... 

Plain 

54 

$4 to $10 

similar to quilting. Used for 
suits, coats, and trimmings. 
Also comes in silk. 

Thick, heavy, short-nap material, 

Merino.... 

Twill 

36 and 45 

$1 to $3.50 

finished without pressing or gloss¬ 
ing. Usually in dark colors. 
Does not clean well. Used for 
outing suits and overcoats. 

Thin, light-weight fabrics. Used 

Mistral.. . . 

Plain 

40 

$2.50 up 

for dresses and shawls. 

Twisted, warp and weft threads 

Mohair.... 

Plain 

40 to 44 

75c. to $4 

woven with nub yam to give a 
crepe effect. Used for dresses. 
A glossy, wiry material of which 

Nun’s veil¬ 
ing . 

Plain 

18 and 36 

$1 to $5 

brilliantine and Sicilienne are 
varieties. Generally made with 
a cotton warp, for the hair filling 
slips in the weaving. Used for 
dresses, linings, and braid. 

Soft, light-weight fabric. Some¬ 


to 50 


times called wool batiste; coarser 
weaves called nun's cloth. Very 
satisfactory for shirred dresses. 



















14 


WOOL 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Ottoman, 





wool. . . . 

Plain 

36 to 54 

$2 to $5 

A firm fabric in ribbed effect. 
Used for coats and suits. 

Panama... 

Plain and 
Basket 

36 and 
40 to 54 

$1 to $4 

A light-weight, smooth-finished, 
wiry fabric made of hard- 
twisted yam. Used for dresses 
and light-weight suits. 

Poiret twill 

Twill 

40 to 54 

$2.50 to $10 

A firm, twilled, worsted having 
an appearance much like French 
serge except that its twill is more 
pronounced, as in gabardine. 
Used for dresses, suits, and coats. 

Polo cloth. 

Plain 

54 

$3 to $10 

Double-faced, soft, and loosely 
woven, woolen cloth; it has an 
evenly cut nap. Used for coats. 

Poplin.... 

Plain 

36 to 54 

$1.50 to $4 

Medium-weight material having 
fine, crosswise ribs. Used for 
skirts and suits. 

Prunella... 

Twill and 
Satin 

36 to 54 

$1.50 to $5 

A soft, fine, closely woven fabric. 
Used for dresses, light suits, 
and clergymen's robes. Satin- 
weave prunella used for shoe tops. 

Ratind.... 

Plain 

40 

$2.50 to $6 

A loosely woven fabric, the weft 
threads of which are looped to 
give a rough, uneven weave. 
Used for dresses and suits. 

Rep. 

Plain 

36 to 44 

$1 to $6.50 

Firm material woven with a cross¬ 
wise, corded effect. Used for 
dresses and suits, for men and 
boys’ clothes, and for draperies. 

Serge. 

Serge, 

Twill 

36 to 56 

75c. to $6 

Soft, durable material that tailors 
well. Popular for suits, coats, 
and dresses. Also made in silk. 

Cheviot. 

Serge, 

Twill 

36 to 54 

75c. to $3.50 

Fabric having a pronounced di¬ 
agonal weave. Used for dresses 
and suits. 

French.. 

Serge, 

Twill 

36 to 56 

$1.25 to 
$4.50 

Very fine, soft weave; easily tai¬ 
lored; wears splendidly, but in 
wearing produces a shine more 
readily than other serges. Used 
for dresses and suits. 

Storm... 

Twill 

36 to 54 

75c. to $3.50 

Hard, full fabric resembling 
cheviot. It is usually a coarser 
material than French serge. 













WOOL 


15 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Sicilienne.. 

Plain 

42 to 54 

75c. to $4 

Coarse weave of mohair. See 
Mohair. 

Silvertone . 

Plain 

54 

$2.50 to $10 

A velour-like fabric having a limited 
quantity of real or artificial 
white silk mixed with the stock 
and producing a shimmering 
effect. 

Soleil. 

Twill 

40 to 54 

$3 to $6 

A smooth, highly finished fabric in 
ribbed effect. Used for dresses 
and light-weight suits. 

Tartan.... 

Twill and 
Basket 

36 to 54 

75c. to $5 

Soft cloth similar to serge but 
woven of different colors to pro¬ 
duce checks and plaids. Some¬ 
times in plain colors. Also made 
in basket weave in plaid designs. 
Used for dresses. 

Tricotine.. 

Twill 

48 to 54 

$2.50 to $10 

A soft, firm material showing a 
very narrow, inconspicuous, diag¬ 
onal twill that gives a knitted 
effect. 

Tussah.... 

Plain 

40 to 50 

$2.50 to 
$4.50 

A light-weight, lustrous cloth used 
for dresses. 

Tweed.... 

Plain 

36 to 54 

$2 to $8 

Rough, unfinished, open texture, 
in homespun effect. Usually 
several shades are mixed, and 
the pattern is not defined. Very 
serviceable for suits and coats. 

Velour.... 

Plain 

18 to 54 

$2.50 to $7 

Soft, closely woven, smooth fabric. 
Used for suits, coats, and capes. 
Velour has a close-shorn nap. 

Venetian. . 

Twill and 
Satin 

54 

$2.50 to $5 

Fine, smooth fabric used for skirts 
and coats. 

Whipcord.. 

Wool 

Twill 

36 to 54 

$1.50 to 
$6.50 

Material in raised, corded effect 
and semidiagonal weave. Cord 
varies in width from extremely 
narrow to f inch. Used for 
dresses and suits. 

taffeta... 

Plain 

36 to 54 

$1.25 to 
$3.50 

Fabric having a closely woven, 
smooth weave. Similar to pana¬ 
ma but of a much finer quality. 
Used for dresses and suits. 

Zibeline.. . 

Plain 

44 to 56 

$2 to $6 

Material filled with glossy hair, 
which gives a to j-inch nap- 
Used for suits and overcoats. 















BASKET 


DIAGONAL 



BIRDS-EYE. 


FELTED CLOTH 



BROCADE 



FUR CLOTH 



CREPE HERRING BONE 


Fig. 1 


16 

























KNITTED CLOTH 




RIB 


SHEPHERD'S CHECK 



LOOPED SURFACE 



PEPPER AND SALT WIDE WALE 

Fig. 2 




J7 



























- 




ASTRAKHAN 


BEDFORD CORD 



GABARDINE 



GRANITE 



FLANNEL 



SOLEIL 


Fig. 3 















































































WOOL 


19 


EXAMPLES OF WOOLS 

32. In presenting new materials each season, manufacturers 
often make use of certain features that have been popular in the 
past. They effect changes in materials by using softer or firmer 
yams, by introducing nub, or knotted, yarn in weaving, by chang¬ 
ing the width of the ribs or cords, and by varying a pebbled surface 
slightly. Such differences produce new fabrics that carry trade 
names. The most popular of these remain in demand long enough 
to become commonly known and eventually are adopted as standard 
fabrics. 


As it requires some time for such materials to become standard 
and as novelty fabrics appear each year, which are bound to be 



TWEED ZIBELINE 


Fig. 4 

short-lived because of their impracticability, it is sometimes neces¬ 
sary to group materials, as in Figs. 1 and 2, under names that 
represent effects, rather than to give the actual names of the 
materials. Such names may appear in various grades of fabrics 
and often cover cotton, silk, and wool materials, but they are a 
help in classifying materials and aid the shopper greatly in explain¬ 
ing to salespeople the kind of fabric desired. 

33. Among woolen materials, there are certain standard fabrics 
having characteristics that distinguish them from all other goods. 































20 


WOOL 


The names of such materials are sometimes used in classifying new 
fabrics. Examples of the best known of these are shown in Figs. 
3 and 4. A careful study of these illustrations not only will help 
to acquaint you with the appearance of these fabrics, but will enable 
you to classify new materials that have similar features. 



DOUBLE-FACED CHINCHILLA 

Fig. 5 


34. The term double-faced fabric covers a variety of materials, 
many of them being produced in different effects. In Fig. 5 
appears double-faced chinchilla, which shows the characteristics of 
all such goods. 

35. Novelty suiting is a term applied to a variety of suiting 
materials that do not fall definitely under any other class. Originally 
the term referred to a fabric of plain, homespun weave with rough, 
irregular filling of different colors. The name is frequently applied 
to checks, brocades, and other unusual fabrics, regardless of the 
weave. Such materials are used chiefly for outing suits and coats. 

36. Water proofing is a general term covering many different 
processes of rendering materials—cotton, silk, and wool especially 
—impervious to moisture. One of the best known and successful 
of these methods is known as cravenette, named for the inventor, 
a man called Craven. It consists in applying to the material a 
solution of secret formula which causes the fabric to repell water 
rather than absorb it. It has the advantage also of leaving the cloth 
porous by not filling up the spaces between the threads. 



SILK 


SILK CULTURE 

1. Origin. —Because of its interesting history and the place 
it holds in the industrial world today, silk is a textile of the first 
rank and deserves unlimited attention. Just how it became known 
is a matter about which there is doubt, but tradition has it that the 
wife of one of the emperors of China discovered the possibilities 
of the silkworm in 2700 B. C. In addition to her discovery, she 
devised a method of reeling the silk and weaving it into cloth. For 
this work she was deified by the Chinese people and is still wor¬ 
shipped, after all these years, as “The Goddess of Silkworms.” At 
the annual festival held in her honor, the feeding of the worms is an 
important feature of the ceremony. 

2. Spread of Culture. —For hundreds of years, the source of 
supply of silk and the method of manufacturing it were kept secret 
in China. The material, however, was sold to the Persians, who, 
in turn, carried it to Southern Europe and sold it to the Greeks and 
afterwards to the Romans. The people who bought the silk 
believed it was made from fleeces growing on trees or from 
flowers, in accordance with the slender facts concerning cotton 
and flax. 

During the reign of the Roman Emperor, Justinian, he commanded 
two Nestorian monks to go into China and return with the secret. 
Although in China it was a crime, punishable by death, to sell 
silkworm eggs or allow them to go out of the country, these two 
monks, while apparently engaged in their pious occupations, 
studied the whole industry and secreted several thousand eggs in 
their hollow staffs. These, together with a thorough knowledge of 



2 


SILK 


the industry, they carried back to Rome, where, during Justinian’s 
reign, the silk culture became a royal monopoly. Later, it spread 
into Greece, Sicily, Spain, France, and, in fact, over all of Southern 
Europe, where it still continues to be a thriving industry. 

Attempts have been made to raise silkworms in America, but 
these have not been successful enough to indicate that their produc¬ 
tion will ever become a profitable industry. Silk manufacture from 
raw silk imported in large quantities from Europe and Asia is 
America’s part in this great work. 

3. Life History of Silkworm. —Silk is a substance formed 
by certain worms in great quantity at a particular time in their 
life history and secreted beneath the mouth from two long sacs 
along the inside of the body. The silkworm, which belongs to the 
family Bombycidce, or spinners, exists in four states—egg, larva, 
chrysalis, and adult, or moth. The egg is very tiny, scarcely 
4 inch in length, and when first laid is yellow. The hatching, 
which takes place when the mulberry trees begin to leaf, requires 
about 10 days, the worm that emerges being black and no longer 
than its shell, and having sixteen legs. At first, the worms merely 
pierce the leaves of the mulberry and suck the sap, but very soon 
they become large enough to eat the leaves themselves. The worm 
holds the*leaf with its three pairs of forward legs and cuts from the 
edge a piece to be eaten. This cutting causes only very slight noise 
in the case of a single worm, but sounds like the falling of rain 
when a large number of worms are feeding at the same time. 

4. The skin molts four times because the worm grows so rapidly 
that the skin cannot keep pace with it. In the molting process, 
the worm stops eating, grows a little lighter in color, and fastens 
itself firmly to some object by its last five pairs of legs. Then it 
holds up its head and the front of its body for about two days. 
The skin breaks at the nose, permitting the head to emerge and the 
worm, by moving its body, to work off the old skin. 

After the last molt, the worm is about lj inches long, a wonder¬ 
ful growth considering the size of the worm when hatched; then it 
begins to spin its cocoon in a quiet corner, the glossy filament 
emerging from two orifices and thus making a double thread that 
hardens upon being exposed to air. The worm moves its head in 
the shape of a figure 8 in one part of the cocoon; then it moves to 
another section and spins in the same manner. Within a day’s 


SILK 


3 


time, the worm is out of sight, but the spinning continues from 2 to 
5 days. The result is a fuzzy, oval ball about the size of a pigeon’s 
egg. In three more days, the worm within the cocoon changes into 
a chrysalis, which in a few weeks changes again into a grayish-white 
moth that emerges from one end of the cocoon. 

5. In a certain number of the cocoons, which are chosen as being 
perfect, the moths are allowed to come to maturity to be used for 
breeding purposes. As cocoons from which the moths are allowed 
to escape are pierced where the moth comes through, they are worth 
very little in the trade. So the large majority of cocoons are 
preserved intact by “stowing,” or stifling, the moths within, that 
is, subjecting the cocoons to sufficient heat to kill the moths. They 
may then be kept indefinitely, or until it is possible to begin the 
reeling. 

6. Wild Silk. —Silk is obtained from both the cultivated and 
the wild varieties of worms. Very great care is given to the rearing 
of worms that are to be used for making the very finest grades of 
silk. But there is also a large market for the silk obtained from the 
wild silkworms, which usually feed on oak leaves. Little attention 
is given to them, so they spin their cocoons in trees and similar 
places and the fiber is consequently of a darker, coarser, and rougher 
nature. Tussah silk is the chief variety of wild silk. The irregular¬ 
ity of the filament found in pongee is a characteristic of this sort of 
silk. 


SILK MANUFACTURE 

7. The second stage in the silk industry is the manufacture of 
silk, that is, the working of the fiber into thread and fabric. Remov¬ 
ing the filament from the cocoon is not a difficult process, but it 
requires considerable care and skill. The cocoons are first soaked 
in boiling water to soften the gum that holds the fibers together. 

8. Silk Reeling. —With the gum softened, the cocoons are 
immersed in fairly hot water, a few at a time, ready to be reeled, 
that is, unwound from the cocoon. It is in this way that the best 
silk is prepared. The reeling process consists in unwinding the 
cocoons and uniting the long, fine threads. So fine are the threads 
that several of them must be combined to form a thread strong 
enough to reel. The cocoons are so arranged in the basin that 



4 


SILK 


the threads from four to eight cocoons are gathered together and 
as the reeling proceeds, are easily made into one thread, for the 
natural gum of the silk makes them stick together. If the reeling is 
done by hand or by foot power, the silk is called re-reel silk , but if 
power machinery is used, the silk is known as filature silk. There 
is much waste in this process, for neither the first nor the last 
threads can be used. 

9. Doubling and Twisting. —After being reeled, the silk 
is skeined and sorted according to color, and then pressed into 
oblong packages called books. It is then wrapped and shipped to 
a manufacturing plant, where it must be sorted according to fineness. 
The skeins are soaked for 10 or 12 hours in warm soapsuds to 
remove as much of the natural gum as possible; then they are 
dried, the thread is wound on bobbins, and these are sent to the 
doubling machine. In the doubling process, which is known as 
silk throwing , threads from a number of bobbins are wound on 
one bobbin in order to make the thread stronger. 

10 . It is sent to the spinner next, where the threads that were 
brought together by the doubling process are twisted into one. 
The way in which the threads are twisted depends on the purpose 
for which the silk is to be used. 

Single filaments of reeled silk that have not been twisted are 
called singles. If the silk receives only a slight twist in spinning, 
it is known as tram , but if it is tightly twisted, it is called organzine. 
Tram is used principally for filling, while organzine is used for warp. 

11. Spun Silk. —In addition to reeled silk, which the long 
filament makes, the waste product is gathered and used for spun 
silk. For this, the short fibers taken from the outside of the cocoons, 
silk from imperfect cocoons or those from which the moth has 
escaped, and various other sorts of waste silk from reeling are col¬ 
lected, boiled to remove the gum, and then cut, combed, and spun in 
a way similar to cotton. Though of an inferior grade, spun silk has 
many uses, such as for knitted fabrics, for fancy effects in cotton 
and wool materials, and for embroidery and knitting silks. 

12. Dyeing. —After being reeled or spun, the yam must have 
all of the gum removed in preparation for dyeing. The greater 
part of the gum, of course, is removed in the first cleaning, but 
every particle of it must be extracted in order that the fiber may be 


SILK 


o 


dyed smoothly and evenly. After the boiling-off of the gum, a 
lustrous, creamy-white fiber remains. Degumming takes away 
a great deal of the weight of the silk so that a certain percentage of 
weight must be added if it is desired to replace its original weight 
and thickness. In most piece-dyed silks, the materials are dyed 
and finished after the boiling process without being weighted. 
However, many silks are weighted by means of salts of tin, iron, 
and lead, particularly if they are dyed in the yam. In the case of 
blacks, a large additional weight is often added. After the silk fiber 
is dyed, it is wound on bobbins preparatory to warping and weaving. 

13. Weaving and Finishing Processes. —The weaving of 
silk does not differ greatly from that of the other fibers. The 
Jacquard loom is used extensively for the fancy brocades. Finally, 
the silk is put through the finishing processes, which consist of 
dressing, mangling, and calendering. Pure silk does not require 
dressing, it being finished by pressing alone. The silk and cotton 
materials and the poorer grades of silk are the ones that require 
both dressing and pressing. 

14. Printing. —The printing of silks is an important part of 
the manufacture of this material. This is done either directly on the 
warp threads after the fabric has been woven, engraved copper 
rollers or blocks being used as in the case of cottons, or in the piece, 
when it may be done direct or by the discharge or the resist process. 
Stencils are used to a great extent by the people of Asia in their 
printing. 


RAYON 


DEVELOPMENT 

15. Rayon has a unique position in the textile world in that 
it is the only man-made fiber. Because of its silk-like sheen and 
the fact that it resulted from early efforts to produce an artificial 
silk, it was long considered only a substitute or adulterant for silk, 
and was for many years called artificial silk. The recognition, 
however, that it is a distinct fiber, worthy of a place of its own along 
with the four natural fibers, came later and led to the coining of the 
name rayon in 1924. 

The early rayons were shiny, having a harsh, metallic luster. 




6 


SILK 


But this has been subdued so that they now appear almost identical 
with silk. And along with this improvement, has come a gain in 
strength. It is still true that some of them lose strength when wet, 
making careful laundering necessary, but they have been perfected 
to the degree that they can be both washed and dry cleaned success¬ 
fully. 


SOURCE AND MANUFACTURE 

16. Source. —The source of rayon is cellulose, which is the 
structural part of all plants. Since cellulose can be obtained from 
either wood or cotton, it is evident that the production of rayon is 
not restricted by climate or season, so it has a great advantage over 
the natural fibers, which can be produced only in certain climates 
and during certain seasons. 

17. Methods of Manufacture.—Although there are various 
methods of making rayon, the general principle is to dissolve the 
cellulose in chemicals and force the viscous liquid, thus formed, 
through fine holes in a continuous spray. A long, smooth filament, 
whose fineness is controlled by the size of the opening, comes from 
each hole and is hardened by contact with the air or another chemical, 
depending on the method in use, and a number of these filaments, 
or fibers, are twisted together to form a thread. 

There are four commercially important methods of producing 
rayon, three of which, the viscose, nitro-cellulose, and cupra- 
ammonium, produce fibers that are very similar and are known as 
regenerated cellulose, because no chemical change is made in the 
cellulose during the process. The methods differ chiefly in the 
chemicals used. The fourth method changes the cellulose to an 
acetate cellulose with markedly different chemical and physical 
properties. The most commonly known of the acetate fibers is 
“celanese,” which is a trade name. 


ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 

18. Points in Favor of Rayon Fabrics. —In addition to its 
beauty and the fact that the price can be kept low because of the 
wide and continual availability of the raw material, rayon has 
other advantages over some of the natural fibers. An outstanding 
one is its fastness of color. In addition, white rayon remains white 




SILK 


7 


always, without a tendency to become yellow or gray. Rayon is 
not affected, moreover, by the dyes used for other fabrics, with the 
exception of cotton, and this characteristic makes possible some 
very beautiful effects through cross-dyeing silk-and-rayon or wool- 
and-rayon mixtures. 

Rayon is not injured by perspiration and is unfavorable to the 
growth of bacteria. Because of its smooth finish, it resists friction 
and so wears well. 

19. Special Advantages of Regenerated Cellulose Fibers. 
The regenerated cellulose fibers absorb moisture readily, thus keep¬ 
ing the skin dry, permitting slow, steady evaporation, and prevent¬ 
ing chill due to sudden drying. This type of rayon is a conductor 
of heat and so allows the body heat to pass out readily, making it a 
cool material for summer wear. 

20. Special Advantages of Acetate Fibers. —The acetate 
rayons differ from the regenerated cellulose fibers in that they are 
heat conductors and so are about like silk in respect to warmth. 
These fibers are much harder than other rayons and do not absorb 
water readily. For this reason, they do not soil easily and are 
very little affected even by ink or fruit stains. They wash very well, 
and do not soften, shrink, nor stretch in the process. They dry 
quickly and do not wrinkle when worn or folded. Because they are 
not absorbent, some consider them undesirable for underwear. 
This objection, however, is outweighed by the fact that the health¬ 
giving, ultra-violet rays are said to pass through acetate fibers, 
giving them additional hygienic value. Still another point in their 
favor is their failure to absorb odors. 

The acetate rayons have a softer luster than the other types, a 
more pleasing feeling in the hands, and, because they are more 
pliable, drape to better advantage. 

21. Disadvantages of Rayon. —The chief disadvantage of 
rayons is that the smooth fibers are likely to slip and separate from 
one another in woven fabrics, particularly at the seams where there 
is strain, and to form runs quickly if a stitch of a knitted fabric is 
dropped. These disadvantages, however, are being overcome by 
special methods of knitting, by mixing with others fibers, and by 
roughening the surface of the fibers. 


8 


SILK 


PURCHASING SILK 


TESTS FOR SILK 

22. To know the nature of silk is a valuable aid in silk selection. 
The quality of silk fabrics may be determined by pulling out threads 
from the warp and the weft and applying a lighted match to them. 
The way in which the sample burns indicates whether it is pure 
silk, weighted silk, artificial silk, or a cotton and silk mixture. If 
it is pure silk, the burning fiber will appear to melt, boil, form tiny 
bubbles along the burned edge, and give off an odor like burning 
hair or feathers. If the sample holds its original form more or 
less and simply glows when burned, you may be sure that the silk 
is weighted. Rayon bums with a quick flash and leaves no globular 
ash. If made of cotton, the fiber will flash up, then smolder and 
all but refuse to go out, giving off an odor like burning leaves. 

23. Another test for silk is to crush it in the hand and rub 
a fingernail diagonally across it. If it crushes and wrinkles when 
squeezed in the hand or if the threads loosen or spread when the 
fingernail is drawn across it, it is not a good fabric to buy, for it 
will not give satisfactory wear. 

Still another test for silk is to hold the goods up to the light to 
see whether or not it contains pinholes, which are generally caused 
by the action of metal salts used in the weighting of silk fabrics. 

Because of the weighting process, the quality of fiber, and not 
the weight, should be of the first importance in the selection of silk. 

24. A good test for velvet is to press the finger firmly on the 
nap. If it is all silk, the fibers will brush up and the finger prints 
will vanish; if it is cotton, the finger prints will show to some extent, 
no matter how much brushing is done. 


TABLE OF SILKS 

25. To assist in the purchase of silk materials and to afford a 
wider acquaintance with their kinds and uses, Table IV is given. 
Here, the names of the materials are arranged in alphabetical order, 
and with each one are given the weave, the width, the usual price, 
and a brief description. Constant reference to this table will help to 
acquaint you with the various kinds of silks and their characteristics. 






SILK 


9 


TABLE IV 

SILKS 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Alpaca.... 

Plain 

27 to 54 

$1 to $3 

A highly lustrous, smooth-surface 
silk. Slightly wiry. Used for 
dresses, coats, and suits. 

Armure. . . 

Figure 

36 and 40 

$2 to $5 

A heavy, soft fabric with a semi- 
lustrous, pebbled surface. Used 
for hats and dresses. 

Bengaline.. 

Plain 

24 to 40 

$1.25 to 
$10 

A fabric in ribbed effect,- heavier 
than poplin. Wool is used in 
the filling. Used for coats, suits, 
dresses, and trimmings. 

Broadcloth 

Plain 

32 to 36 

$1.25 to $3 

A firmly woven silk, somewhat 
lustrous. Used for blouses, 
sports and children's dresses, 
and men's shirts. 

Brocade... 

Canton 

Jacquard 

36 and 40 

$3.50to $50 

A fabric showing raised patterns of 
flowers; often enriched with gold 
and silver. Used as trimming and 
for evening gowns and wraps. 

cr6pe.... 

Plain 

40 

$2 to $6.50 

A highly finished material with fine 
silk or wool warp and heavier fill¬ 
ing forming light cross-ribs. 
Heavier than cr§pe de Chine. 
Used for dresses and wraps. 

Charmeuse 

Chenille 

Twill 

36 and 40 

$2 to $5 

A soft, dull, satiny fabric. Used 
for dresses, especially draped 
dresses. 

chiffon.. 

Plain and 
Pile 

40 

$8.50 to 
$13.50 

A fabric of chiffon basis having 
floral and conventional motifs in 
pile weave,like velvet or chenille. 
Used for dresses and linings for 
evening wraps. 

Chiffon.. .. 

Chiffon 

Plain 

40 

$1.50 

A very soft, flimsy, transparent 
material. Used for trimmings, 
overdrapes, and dresses and as 
a foundation under lace dresses. 

taffeta .. 

Plain 

36 and 40 

$2 to $5 

A light-weight taffeta of good 
quality, with a soft, lustrous 
finish. Used for fancy work, 
dresses, and suits. 

China silk. 

Plain 

24 to 36 

50c. to $3 

A thin, transparent fabric with a 
luster. Used for linings, under¬ 
wear, and sometimes for dresses. 


















10 


SILK 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Desciiption 

Crape. 

Plain 

18 to 40 

$3.50 up 

A thin, semitransparent fabric, 
finely crinkled, and having either 
irregular or long, parallel ridges. 
Black in this material is used ex¬ 
tensively for mourning purposes. 

Cire. 

Crepe de 

Satin 

24 to 40 

$3 to $6 

Smooth, high-luster fabric with 
lacquer-like finish. Used for 
hats and dress trimming. 

Chine. 

Crepe 

Plain 

40 

$1.50 to 
$3.50 

Light-weight or medium-heavy, 
washable, all-silk fabric with un¬ 
twisted warp, giving a lustrous, 
finely crinkled effect. Used for 
.blouses, dresses, linings, and 
underwear. 

meteor. . 

Twill 

40 

$2.50 to $5 

A lustrous silk crepe with a fine- 
twilled face. Used for dresses. 

Crepe satin 

Satin 

40 

$2.50 to $6 

A two-faced fabric, one side satin, 
the other a dull crepe surface. 
Made in different grades. 

Faille. 

Plain 

36 and 40 

$2.50 to $6 

A fabric having a light, crosswise 
grain or cord and a slight gloss. 
Used for suits, dresses, blouses, 
hats, and children’s coats. 

Flat cr6pe. 

Plain 

40 

$3 to $6.50 

A firm fabric with lustrous, slightly 
cr£pe-like surface. Pliant. 
Used for dresses and blouses. 

Foulard. . . 

Twill 

36 and 40 

$1.50 to $5 

A soft, serviceable silk, plain and 
figured, for dresses and blouses. 

Fur cloth.. 

Pile 

48 to 50 

$3.50 to $20 

Deep-pile fabric made to resemble 
various kinds of fur. Tussah silk, 
silk fiber, and mohair are 
generally used in making it. 
Used for coats and trimmings. 

Gauze. 

Georgette 

Leno 

18 and 36 

50c. to $3 

Fine, transparent goods, flimsy but 
very strong. Used as backings 
to lend support and for over¬ 
draping and veils. Sometimes 
called gossamer. 

cr6pe .. . 

Plain 

36 to 40 

$1.50 to $5 

Sheer material similar to chiffon, 
but woven of a more firmly 
twisted thread giving it a, crepe¬ 
like surface. Used for dresses, 
blouses, negligees. 

















SILK 


11 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Gloria. 

Twill 

36 to 40 

75c. to $4 

A fine, closely woven fabric having 
a soft luster. The filling may be 
cotton or wool. Used for um¬ 
brellas and men's shirts. 

Gold cloth. 

Plain and 
Jacquard 

18 and 40 

$6.50 to 
$13.50 

A shiny material made of metal 
warp and silk weft. Used for 
trimmings. 

Gold tissue. 

Gros de 

Plain and 
Jacquard 

36 

$1.50 to 
$7.50 

Similar to gold cloth but soft and 
transparent. Used for overdrap¬ 
ing and trimming. 

Londres. 

Plain 

36 and 40 

$2 to $4 

Highly finished, pliable fabric 
having fine, flat ribs running 
crosswise. Used for dresses and 
hats. 

Grosgrain.. 

Plain 

18 to 40 

$2 up 

A stout, durable, corded silk; cords 
run from selvage to selvage; 
comes in colors. Used for coats 
and trimmings. 

Habutaye.. 

Plain 

27 to 54 

$1 to $7 

A fine, washable Japanese silk; 
smooth and even in texture. 
Used for summer dresses,blouses, 
skirts, and coats. 

Japan silk. 

Plain 

36 

75c.to$2.50 

This name covers a variety of 
Jap silks; commonly applied to 
cheaper qualities of habutaye. 
Coarser weave than China silk. 
Used for blouses, summer dresses, 
and kimonos. 

Khaiki. ... 
Liberty 

Plain 

38 

75c. to $2 

Fine, light-weight Jap silk. Used 
for dresses and scarfs. 

satin.... 

Satin 

36 and 40 

$2 to $4 

A very soft, closely woven material. 
Used for finings and trimmings. 

Louisine... 

Plain and 
Basket 

36 

$2 to $3.50 

A plain, durable silk; soft glossy 
texture. Used for dresses, coat 
finings, and trimmings. 

Madras.... 

Plain and 
Figure 

32 to 40 

$2 to $4 

A durable wash silk, usually striped. 
Used for tailored blouses and 
men’s negligee shirts. 

Maline.... 

Lace 

27 

50c. 

A soft, thin, perishable, gauzy 
fabric, similar to net in weave. 
Used for neckwear, trimmings, 
and as drapery for evening 
gowns. Sometimes called tulle. 














12 


SILK 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Marquisette 

Leno 

40 

$2.50 to $3 

An open-mesh fabric, appearing 
much like voile. Used for over¬ 
drapes and evening gowns. 

Messaline.. 

Satin 

36 

$1.75 to 
$3.50 

A soft, closely woven, lustrous 
satin. Used for dresses, slips, 
and linings. 

Moire. 

Mousseline 

Plain 

24 to 40 

$1.75 to 
$8.50 

A watered effect produced on a 
ribbed fabric. Used for coats, 
dresses, suits, and trimmings. 

de soie.. 

Plain 

45 

50c.to$1.50 

A transparent material. When 
slightly stiffened, it is called 
pineapple cloth. Used for collar 
foundations; similar to gauze. 

Mull. 

Plain 

27 to 49 

50c. to $2 

Very soft, sheer material. Used 
for foundations of dresses and 
blouses, and for inexpensive 
party dresses. Heavy quality 
called Seco silk , a trade name. 

Ottoman. . 

Peau de 

Plain 

40 to 44 

$2 to $5 

Thick, corded, lustrous silk. Used 
for wraps, dresses, and trim¬ 
mings. • 

cygne... 

Plain 

36 

$2 to $6 

A fabric of soft, lustrous finish in 
pebbled effect. Used for dresses, 
suits, and coats. 

Peau de soie 

Persian or 

Plain 

36 

$2 to $6 

A soft, durable fabric with dull, 
satiny finish, showing cross-ribs 
on one or both sides. Used for 
tailored dresses and trimming. 

Paisley.. 

Satin and 
Plain 

27, 36, 40 

$2 to $20 

A silk of many colors and designs. 
Used chiefly for dress ornament. 

Plush. 

Pompadour 
or Dres¬ 

Pile 

50 

$3.50 to $20 

A rich fabric with a pile face and a 
coarse, woven back. Plush pile 
is longer than that of velvet. 
Used for coats, capes, neck 
pieces, and muffs. 

den . 

Plain 

36 

$2 to $8 

A flowered silk, usually taffeta; 
sometimes in rich colorings. 
Used for party dresses, finings, 
and fancy work. 

Pongee.... 

Plain 

33 and 34 

$1 to $5 

A plain, washable, light-weight 
fabric, having a slightly rough 
surface. Usually made of the 
natural raw silk. Used for sum¬ 
mer suits, dresses, and blouses. 













SILK 


13 


Name 

Weave 

Usual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Poplin. . . . 

Plain 

36 and 40 

$2 to $5 

A heavy warp fabric having well- 
pronounced crosswise cords due 
to heavy weft. Comes in many 
varieties. Satisfactory for suits, 
dresses, and children’s coats. 

Radium... 

Plain 

36 to 40 

$1.50 to 
$3.50 

A firm silk resembling silk broad¬ 
cloth. Washable. Used for 
underwear and dresses. 

Satin. 

Satin, 

Satin 

36 and 40 

$1.50 to $10 

Firm, basic weave with a glossy, 
smooth luster on the face and a 
dull back. Comes in many va¬ 
rieties. Used for dresses, coats, 
linings. 

Skinner’s 

Satin 

Satin 

36 

$2.50 to $5 

Heavy, durable satin with luster. 
Used chiefly for linings and 
dresses. This is a trade name. 

Wash. . . 

Satin 

36 and 40 

$2 to $5 

Soft, white, or light-colored satin 
used for collars and lingerie. It 
has the advantage of giving a 
good appearance after washing. 

Shantung.. 

Plain 

33 and 34 

$1.25 to $5 

A heavy pongee silk. Rough, plain, 
washable fabric. 

Used for dresses and blouses. 

Silver cloth 

Plain and 
Jacquard 

18 to 40 

$6.50 to 
$13.50 

A shiny material made of metal 
warp and silk weft. Used for 
trimmings. 

Silvertissue 

Plain and 
Jacquard 

18 to 40 

$1.50 to 
$7.50 

The cheaper grades are imitations 
of the metal cloths, and the more 
expensive ones are made of metal 
but are transparent. 

Surah. 

Twill 

36 

$1.50 to $3 

Soft, pliable fabric without dress¬ 
ing. Used for dresses and hats. 
Satin surah is a high-luster silk. 

Taffeta.... 

Plain 

36 and 40 

$2 to $6 

A fine, smooth, glossy fabric with 
considerable body; alike on both 
sides. May be plain, figured, 
striped, or plaid. 

Tulle. 

Lace 

72 

$2 

Fine, fluffy, machine-made net. 
Used for millinery, drapery on 
dresses, and party frocks. 

Velvet.... 

Pile 

18, 36, 45 

$1.50 to $10 

Has a short soft, thick-pile face 
and a plain back. May be all 
silk, or all cotton, or have a silk 
face. Used for dresses, suits, 
coats, hats, and trimmings. 
















14 


SILK 


Name 

Weave 

Dsual Width 
Inches 

Price 
per Yard 

Description 

Velvet, 





Chiffon.. 

Velvet, 

Pile 

40 to 54 

$4.50 to $20 

The lightest, softest velvet known. 
Used for elaborate dresses, suits, 
evening gowns, hats, and wraps. 

Croise.. . 

Velvet, 

Pile 

18, 36, 45 

$1.50 to $5 

Has coarser back than Lyons vel¬ 
vet; so woven as to hold the pile 
firmly. Used for trimmings. 

Lyons.. . 

Velvet, 

Pile 

18 to 36 

$2 to $6 

Velvet of finest quality, made in 
Lyons, France. Distinguished 
by the fact that the foundation 
material is visible through the 
pile. Silk or linen back only, 
never cotton. Either flat or 
erect pile. 

Mirror.. 

Velvet, 

Pile 

18 

$1.50 to $5 

A shimmery velvet, made of long, 
soft pile pressed in different 
directions. Used as trimming 
and for millinery purposes. 

Nacre... 

Velvet, 

Pile 

18 to 36 

$2 to $6 

A velvet with a back of one color 
and a pile of one or two others, 
which gives a beautiful, change¬ 
able shading. Used for evening 
gowns and wraps, and as trim¬ 
ming, especially for millinery. 

Panne.. . 

Velvet, 

Pile 

18, 36, 40 

$1.50 to 
$7.50 

Velvet having a soft pile pressed 
downwards in one direction. 
Used for gowns, wraps, and hats. 

Trans¬ 
parent. .. 

Pile 

40 

$3.50 to 
$20 

A fine, semi-transparent fabric of 
light weight, having a silk back 
and an erect rayon pile. Comes 
plain and printed. Used for 
formal daytime wear and even¬ 
ing dresses and wraps. 

Vestings... 

Figure 

22 to 36 

$2 to $10 

Heavy, fancy materials usually in 
highly colored, Persian effects. 
Used for vests and trimmings, 
and for men’s ties. 

Voile. 

Plain 

40 

$2.50 to $3 

Open-mesh, semitransparent silk 
or silk-and-wool goods. Used 
for overdrapes, evening dresses, 
and fancy blouses. 

















LACES 


HISTORY OF LACE 

1. From its very beginning, lace has been regarded as woman’s 
treasure, and its production, as the fine art in which she has most 
excelled. Both old age and youth alike are conscious of its charm 
and beauty, realizing innately the power of this network of threads 
to enhance their appearance and provide a softening touch. And 
never has the value of the raw material entering into a product 
been so much increased by skill and industry and with so slight an 
expenditure of tools as is true of hand-made laces. Just consider, 
a little flaxen thread, a needle, a design drawn on a piece of parch¬ 
ment, plus the skill and infinite patience of a woman, and the 
result is a product almost beyond price—“a thing of beauty and a 
joy forever.” Lace made by machine can never aspire to the 
distinction won by most of the hand-made varieties, but it is very 
often so dainty and so good an imitation that it not only demands 
our attention but arouses our respect and admiration. 

2. While very few of us will ever have the privilege of possessing 
many, or perhaps any, pieces of good hand-made lace, we need not 
be deprived of knowing its characteristics, for there are excellent 
collections of these laces in the museums of art throughout the 
country, which are open to all for study and enjoyment. By 
examining these collections, or even by making a careful study of 
clear, distinct photographs of them, we may come to know the 
difference between a well and a badly designed piece of lace, whether 
hand- or machine-made. 

It is all too true that the machine can not entirely give us the 
beauty and variety of texture we find in a needle-point or a bobbin- 
made gtound or toile; still, we can learn to select the best pattern 



2 


LACES 


available and also to distinguish the qualities in lace that give it 
enduring worth and make it a continual pleasure as long as it lasts. 

3. Whether made by hand or by machinery, lace is an open¬ 
work fabric or network of linen, silk, cotton, or similar threads made 
with a needle or bobbins or by machinery and usually ornamented 
or figured. Most women know these facts regarding laces, but 
not every woman is familiar with the names of the laces, their 
wearing qualities, and the appropriateness of their design and weave 
to certain garments. It is the purpose of this Chapter, therefore, to 
give a brief history of the evolution of lace, to illustrate its various 
kinds, and to give an explanation of their distinguishing features 
and uses, so as to enable the woman unfamiliar with laces to gain a 
knowledge of them, and thus be in a position to select laces in an 
intelligent manner and to keep them in the best possible condition 
as long as they are useful. 

By having a correct idea of the different weaves, their wearing 
qualities, and the purpose for which different laces are used, a 
woman will be able to recognize nearly any kind of lace when she 
sees it; and, aside from knowing what to select for her own use and 
how to help others, she will understand better the descriptions of 
gowns in fashion publications, which frequently contain excellent 
suggestions for the artistic use of laces of all widths and qualities. 

4. Origin of Lace. —As the term is now understood, lace was 
first made and worn in the 16th century. The place of its origin 
has been much disputed, several different countries, notably Italy, 
France, Spain, Flanders, and even the far East, claiming the distinc¬ 
tion. The frailness of the specimens that remain makes it somewhat 
difficult to trace the history of this beautiful fabric, but these, 
together with pictorial art and sculpture, have practically settled the 
question that to Italy belongs the honor, for it is definitely known 
that needle-point lace was made and worn there before 1500. 
Investigations indicate that bobbin, as well as needle-point lace, 
was made in Belgium by Barbara Uttman at about the same time. 
Lace derived its origin from netting, and not, as is often thought, 
from embroidery. 

5. Growth, of Lace Making. —At first, the lace-making 
industry was confined to the religious orders, it being made by both 
monks and nuns. Gradually, however, the nuns taught the art to 


LACES 


3 


their pupils and in this way it spread among the other classes of 
people. Numerous countries, France, Spain, Belgium, Germany, 
and England, gradually took up the making of lace, each one 
producing certain varieties and becoming proficient in the making 
of them. Wherever lace has been produced, the industry has 
thrived at times and declined at others, the severity of the laws 
passed concerning it being largely responsible for this change. 
Therefore, while one would expect a story of continuous prosperity 
in so beautiful a craft as lace making, its development has been 
continually arrested and hampered. Consequently, while we like 
to think of lace as a simple, graceful, womanish fabric, it has often 
been influential in affecting the finances of a whole nation. 

6. For many years, lace was made chiefly out of silk and linen 
thread, but in 1833 cotton thread was first substituted for flax. 
This produced a less artistic lace, but it afforded increased facility 
for the makers, as they found the cotton thread cheaper, more 
elastic, easier to handle, and less liable to break. 

7. During the 19th century came also the invention of machinery 
for the making of net having a fast mesh, that is, one that would not 
unravel, for in 1809 John Heathcoat invented a machine that 
produced bobbinet. At first, only 1-inch strips, which had to be 
joined together, were made, but gradually machinery was perfected 
that would produce 18-, 30-, 36-, and 54-inch widths. With the 
introduction of machine net, all the traditions of lace making 
were upset, and by 1830 lace makers produced all kinds of simple 
motifs which they applied to net, thus demolishing the old methods 
of lace making and practically ending the history of old laces. 

8. Another notable event in the history of machine-made lace 
was the application of the Jacquard attachment to the lace machine. 
This device had been used for the weaving of silk, cotton, and linen 
goods from the time of its perfection in 1803, but it was not until 
1837 that it was successfully applied to lace making. From this 
time on, machines were able to duplicate practically every pattern 
of hand-made lace, so laces steadily grew in production and decreased 
in price. 

9. Lace Making at Present. —After the first novelty of the 
machine-made lace had worn off, a slight reaction in favor of old 
lace set in both in England and on the continent. In France, laces 


5D—6 


4 


LACES 


were cleaned, cut, and adapted to modern fashion. Thus, within 
the last half century, the taste for good lace has again become 
almost general in both England and France. The reason for such 
a reaction is not strange after all. While almost every descrip¬ 
tion of lace is now made by machinery and produced so perfectly 
that it is often difficult for the practiced eye to detect the differ¬ 
ence, still we can never overlook the fact that the finest and most 
artistic machine-made laces can never possess the intricacy of 
pattern nor the beauty of design that characterize laces made by 
hand. 


10. In America, however, the hand-made lace industry has 
not progressed so well as in foreign countries, although in this 
country rapid strides have been made in the manufacture of lace 
by machinery. The reason for this should be clear. The intricacies 
of hand-made lace designs require long, tedious hours of labor, and 
as such work in Europe is done mostly by peasants, who work for 
very low wages, the cost of production is not so great there as it 
would be in America, where a higher standard of wages is the rule. 
In this day of commercial rush and competition, the time expended 
in making a bit of hand-made lace is hard to realize; yet, to see a 
piece of real hand-made Flemish lace without associating patience 
and labor with it would display lack of conception, for some 
of the designs made by the Belgians are marvelous so far as beauty 
and workmanship are concerned. 


METHODS OF MAKING LACE 

11. To understand thoroughly the varieties of lace and their 
uses, it will be necessary for one to become familiar with the principal 
ways in which it is made. As has already been explained, lace 
refers to ornamented open work of threads of flax, cotton, silk, 
gold, or silver, and occasionally hair or aloe fiber. These threads 
are looped, plaited, or twisted together in several ways, the method 
used determining the name to be applied to the lace as follows: 

12. Hand-made lace, or lace made by hand with the needle 
and with bobbins. This includes: 

1. Needle-point lace, or lace in which the threads are worked 
by hand with a needle. 


t 



LACES 


5 


2. Bobbin lace, or lace made with bobbins. This is made on a 
pillow, often being inaccurately described as pillow lace. 

13. Maclaine-made lace, or lace made by machinery. Imi¬ 
tations of both needle-point and bobbin lace patterns are produced 
in machine-made lace. Machine-made lace is of two varieties, 
which are: 

1. Woven lace, in which two sets of threads are used—warp 
and weft. 

2. Embroidery lace, in which a pattern is embroidered on a 
ground, which is often burnt out afterward. 

14. Needle-Point Lace. —In the true sense of the word, 
needle-point lace is made with the needle alone, although there are a 
number of laces to which the term “point” is applied that are com¬ 
binations of both point and bobbin lace. It originated as an 
evolution of cut work and developed into net lace. 

In the making of needle-point lace, the design is drawn on parch¬ 
ment, which is kept straight by being stitched to heavy linen. 
Threads are then laid along the lines of the pattern and sewed down 
through the linen and parchment. By means of fine stitching done 
with a needle and a single thread, the entire design, both the solid 
filling and the open work, is worked on the threads already laid, 
the button-hole stitch being generally employed. 

15. Bobbin Lace. —The method of bobbin-lace making is an 
exceptionally interesting study and one of the most important in 
the field of hand-made lace. The lace is made on a pillow or 
cushion by twisting and plaiting threads wound on bobbins. It is 
sometimes called pillow lace, but this is not a distinctive title for 
it since needle-point and knotted laces are also supported on a 
pillow. The chief characteristic of bobbin lace, in addition to 
its being made with bobbins, is that the threads in it are plaited. 
In fact, it is the plaiting and twisting of the threads that help 
to characterize bobbin lace. At first, instead of pillow, bobbins, 
and pins, the hands were used, each finger serving as a peg. 
Occasionally, the hands of several assistants were required to 
furnish sufficient pegs for a broad border. 

16. As with needle-point lace, the pattern is first drawn upon 
a piece of paper or parchment, which is then pricked with holes. 
The pricked pattern is placed on the cushion, which is sometimes 


6 


LACES 


a circular pad backed with a flat board in order that it may be 
placed upon a table and easily moved as the worker may wish, and 
other times a well-stuffed short bolster, flat at both ends. On the 
upper part of the pattern are fastened the ends of the threads 
unwound from the bobbins, which thus hang across the pillow. 
These bobbins are thrown and twisted with regular precision in 
order to form the fabric of the ground and pattern. The wider 
such hand-made lace and the more intricate the pattern, the more 
bobbins are required to do the work; and as this work means the 
expenditure of much time and the exercise of skill, the price of such 
laces increases with the width and the intricacy of the design, the 
wider laces being more expensive in proportion to their width than 
the narrow ones. 

17. Many bobbin laces are finished with bead edging, which 
consists of tiny buttonhole loops of thread edging the lace. This 
needle-point edge is, in effect, applied to many kinds of machine- 
and hand-made laces. It adds much to the attractiveness of a 
lace design, as it tends to impart the daintiness so much sought in 
laces. Bobbin lace finished in this manner is frequently referred to 
as needle-point lace. Bobbin-made lace has a fine, soft quality 
that distinguishes it from needle-point lace, which has a much 
harder and crisper appearance. 

18. Woven Lace. —As early as 1560, efforts were made to 
invent machinery that would produce lace and thus take the place 
of the hand workers. William Lee, a weaver in Nottingham, 
England, struggled to produce a machine for this purpose, but his 
efforts met with opposition from the authorities because they con¬ 
sidered machinery to be a detriment to the interests of the working 
classes. However, continued efforts by other inventors finally 
resulted in the production of the Heathcoat machine in 1809, 
which made successful net. John Leavers, of Nottingham, England, 
greatly improved this machine, and although it has had improve¬ 
ments since his day, it is still called by his name. The application 
of the Jacquard attachment has made it possible to duplicate the 
patterns of hand-made laces. 

19. As the Leavers machine makes a woven lace, it requires two 
sets of threads, warp and weft threads. The warp threads are 
held in reels, while the weft threads are wound on flat bobbins 


LACES 


7 


and run at right angles to the warp threads. The bobbins are 
made flat to allow them to pass between the warp threads and the 
two sets are twisted together by means of both a mechanism that 
controls the tension of either set of threads at will and an oscillating 
mechanism. As the tension on each set of threads can be made 
tight or loose, the slack threads on one are permitted to twist about 
the other as the pattern requires. 

Nottingham, England, and Calais, Caudry, and Lyons, France, 
produce large quantities of woven laces. 

20. Embroidery Lace.—The other variety of machine-made 
lace, which includes Plauen and St. Gall laces, is made on an 
embroidery machine called the Schiffli machine. The industry 
first started by. the making of Oriental laces. Eventually, it was 
discovered that by using a ground of one material and an embroidery 
thread of another, the lace could be treated to an acid bath that 
would destroy the ground without affecting the pattern. 

The Schiffli machine works on the same principle as the sewing 
machine, having two threads, one carried underneath on a bobbin 
and the other on top in a needle. The early machines were 
operated by hand, several needles being controlled by a pantograph, 
an instrument for reproducing the design, but later it was found 
possible to use a Jacquard attachment to reproduce the pattern 
and greatly increase the number of needles on the machine. Plauen 
in Saxony and St. Gall in Switzerland are the centers for the manu¬ 
facture of this kind of lace. 


VARIETIES OF LACE 


LACE TERMS 

21. In the subject of lace, as in most subjects, it will be found 
that there are many terms that are purely technical; that is, 
terms that pertain exclusively to this particular subject. These 
must be understood if a thorough understanding of laces would be 
had. To make them clear and at the same time enable you to 
take up the following examples of laces in the most intelligent 
manner, an explanation of the terms most frequently met with is 
here given, arranged in alphabetical order for easy reference. 




8 


LACES 


A jours. —The filling or ornamental work introduced into 
enclosed spaces. 

Applique. —Either needlework or bobbin lace in which the 
pattern is made separately and sewed onto a net ground. 

Bead Edge. —Another name for beading, which is the simple 
heading on pillow lace. 

Bobbins. —Small elongated reels, either wooden or bone, on 
which thread is wound for the purpose of lace-making. Often 
they are weighted with such articles as beads, coins, seeds, etc. 

Brides, Brides Claires, and Bars. —Small strips used to 
connect the parts of a design and employed instead of a groundwork 
of net. They consist either of threads overcast with buttonhole 
stitches or of twisted or plaited threads. 

Brides Ornees. —Brides ornamented with picots, loops, or 
pearls. 

Cartisane. —A strip of parchment used to give a raised effect 
to the patterns in lace. It is covered with silk or gold or other 
metal thread. As it is not durable, the less it is used the more 
the lace is esteemed. 

Continuous Inner Pearl. —A stitch used in Honiton and 
other braid laces to ornament the inner side of any leaf that is not 
filled with stitches. 

Cordonnet. —The thread used to outline the designs in lace. 
Sometimes, it consists of a single thread, other times, of several 
threads worked together, and again, of a thread or horsehair over¬ 
cast with buttonhole-stitches. 

Couronnes. —The cordonnet is sometimes ornamented with 
stitches known as couronnes. The English form of this term is 
crowns. 

Dentele. —A French term meaning a scalloped border. 

Engrelure. —The edge of a lace by which it is sewed on the 
material it is to decorate. Same as heading or footing. 

Entoilage. —The French term for a plain mesh ground. 

Entre deux. —The French term for insertion, whether of 
embroidery or lace. 

Fillings. —These are fancy stitches used to fill in enclosed spaces 
in needle-point and bobbin laces. 

Fond. —The groundwork of needle-point or bobbin lace as 
distinguished from the pattern. Other names for it are champ, 
entoilage, reseau, and treille. 


LACES 


9 


Gimp. —The pattern of lace which rests on the ground or is 
held together by brides. It is not the same, however, as the 
material gimp, which was formerly called guipure. 

Grounds. —Two forms of ground are found in laces—the 
bride and the reseau. The bride ground consists of bars that con¬ 
nect the ornaments forming the pattern. The reseau ground is a 
net made either with the needle or with bobbins. 

Guipure. —Formerly, a lace-like trimming of twisted threads. 
Now, it is applied to all laces having a tape-like pattern on them. 

Insertion. —Strips of lace or embroidered muslin or cambric on 
which both edges are alike. 

Jours. —Ornamental devices found in various parts of lace. In 
Venetian point lace, jours are introduced in the center of the flowers. 

Mat or Math.. —The closely worked portion of a lace; the toile. 

Passement. —The pricked parchment pattern upon which both 
needle-point and bobbin laces are worked. 

Pearls or Purls. —Bars or brides. 

Pearl Edge or Purl Edge. —A narrow edge consisting of pro¬ 
jecting loops and sewed to lace as a finish. 

Picot. —Tiny loops worked on the edge of a bride or cordonnet 
or used to beautify a flower, as in the case of rose point. 

Pillow Lace. —Bone lace, or bobbin lace, made on a pillow by 
twisting or plaiting the threads with bobbins. 

Point Lace. —Properly, only lace made with the point of a needle, 
needle-point lace. However, the term is often misapplied, numer¬ 
ous laces, such as Point d’Angleterre and Honiton point being 
made with bobbins and not with the needle. 

Point de Raccroc. —A stitch used to join reseau ground. 

Point Plat. —A French term for flat point lace having no raised 
cordonnet or outline cord. 

Pricker. —A short instrument with which holes are pricked in 
the pattern used for bobbin lace. 

Reseau. —Ground of small, regular meshes made both on the 
pillow and with the needle. 

Samplers. —Small samples showing patterns of lace. They 
originated in the 16th century when not every one could buy 
pattern books because of their scarcity and high price. They were 
also used to show the skill of the worker. 

Sprig. —A detached piece of lace which is appliqued to a net 
foundation or joined with other sprigs by means of bars. 


10 


LACES 



Machine-Made Alengon 

Fig. 1 


Ties. —Like bars, ties are the 
connecting threads worked across 
spaces in needle-point and bob¬ 
bin laces. 

Toile. —The substance of the 
patterns of lace as distinct from 
the ground. 

Treille. —Another name for 
the ground or reseau of lace as 
distinguished from the pattern 
which they surround. 


EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL LACES 

22. Following are the names 
and descriptions of a large num¬ 
ber of laces together with illus¬ 
trations of many of them. Not 
all the laces in existence are in¬ 
cluded here, but practically all 
of the laces that are used by 
the woman who sews are dis¬ 
cussed. With these illustrations 
and descriptions firmly fixed in 
the mind, no woman should be 
at a loss to recognize any kind 
of lace when she sees it; rather, 
she should be able to make 
proper selections for garments 
on which lace is to be used, and 
she should know whether it will 
give the service she desires of it. 

23. In studying the laces 
here mentioned, it should be re¬ 
membered that the manner in 
which they derive their names is 
by no means consistent. Many 
of them are named according to 
the locality in which they have 
been, or are, made, or the nation- 




LACES 


11 


ality of the people who make them, as Antwerp lace, Brussels lace, 
Armenian lace, Bohemian lace, Belgian lace, and so on. The same 
kind of lace is made in many countries, but the threads of which 
it is made vary to some extent, owing to the process of manufacture 
of the thread itself in these different countries. Then, again, the 
implements used in the manufacture and the method of making 
have much to do with the naming of laces, as bobbin lace, point 
lace, and so on. 


24. Alencon lace, often referred to as point d’Alengon, is 
a needle-point lace having a sheer net ground and a pattern that is 
outlined with a thread covered with buttonhole-stitches to produce 


Machine-Made All-Over Net 


Fig. 2 




Machine-Made All-Over Lace 


a cord effect. This lace, which was the first to use a net ground, 
has a closer, firmer pattern than any other lace and a very clear, 
fine ground. When hand-made, it is very expensive, but the 
machine-made variety, an example of which is shown in Fig. 1, 
is inexpensive and is used extensively on ready-to-wear garments. 

25. Algerian lace is a narrow, flat, ornamental lace of gold 
and silver threads. It is used in outlining designs on garments and 
in draperies and fancy work. 


26. All -over lace, Fig. 2, is any lace that has both edges 
finished the same and a pattern that repeats the entire width and 





H f i , 2£ v&AflK • : 

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5 " 


Machine-Made Antique 

Fig. 3 


Hand-Made Antique 







papjgja 

I Wm. 


wwM/mmm 




Mm 


mmm 


wiSm 

$w%M 

f mmsm 

v,. sw\ ■W&m 




ytrA 


Hand-Made Applique 


Machine-Made Applique 



14 


LACES 


length. It comes in beautiful designs in silk, and is made also in 
very cheap grades. Sometimes it contains merely a dot, and again, 
an elaborate pattern. It is used for dresses, blouses, flounces, 
yokes, and sleeves, as well as for millinery. 

27. Aloe lace is a coarse kind of lace made from the fibers of 
the aloe by the peasants of Albissola, Italy. This lace is not much 
in demand as it becomes mucilaginous, or gummy, in washing. 
Although it is usually executed in tatting, the threads are sometimes 
twisted and plaited. Such work is also done by the natives in 

Paraguay, South Amer¬ 
ica. Tatting is done in 
aloe thread at Manila, 
Philippine Islands. 

28. Antique lace, 
Fig. 3, is a hand-made 
bobbin lace of heavy linen 
thread in large, open, 
square, knotted mesh. 
It has the appearance of 
a coarse form of darned 
work done on an open- 
mesh weave, and is often 
referred to as darned lace. 
Antique lace usually has 
rare patterns, all kinds 
of designs being worked 
in the net by darning, 
and, as it is hand-made, 
it is expensive. Imitation 
antique lace is sometimes used for draperies and similar purposes. 

29. Antwerp lace, a bobbin lace resembling Mechlin, was 
first made at Antwerp in the 17th century; it is sometimes 
known as Flanders lace, also. It was made in order to supply 
the increased demand for Mechlin lace. In one variety, the design 
is worked on a ground and in the other the sections of the design 
are merely attached by means of brides or bars. The chief charac¬ 
teristic of this lace is a pot or a vase of flowers, which varies in 
its size and its details. 



Hand-Made Arabian 



Machine-Made Arabian 
Fig. 5 





Hand-Made Baby Laces 


Machine-Made Baby Laces 


Fig. 6 




15 





















Hand-Made Battenberg 




Machine-Made Battenberg 
Fig. 7 



Machine-Made Bobbinet 



Machine-Made Tosca Net 
Fig. 8 


16 
















LACES 


17 


30. Applique lace, Fig. 4, is a lace made by sewing hand¬ 
made flowers or sprigs, which may be either needle-point or bobbin- 
made, on a machine net. Sometimes, the designs are made of net 
or thin muslin and are outlined with a chain-stitch after being 
applied. Applique lace made in Belgium is characterized by 
very fine net with small dots sprinkled over it. This lace is imitated 
very beautifully by the machine, as Fig. 4 indicates. 

31. Arabian lace, Fig. 5, is a curtain lace. Its color is usually 
drab and it is corded with heavy, darker-drab cord. The price of 
Arabian lace is regulated by the nature of its design. Imitations, 
as a rule, are cheap and 
shabby in appearance, 
due possibly to the cheap¬ 
ness of the drab dye used 
in dyeing them. 

32. Argentan lace 

is a needle-point lace first 
made at Argentan, 

France. It resembles 
Alengon, as it is probable 
that the same workers 
were employed in the 
manufacture of both, but 
it has a larger and more 
striking pattern and there 
is a noticeable distinction 
in the net ground. This 
is hexagonal in shape 
and is larger and stiffer 
than any other because 
the sides of the mesh are covered with fine buttonhole-stitches, ten 
on a side, which are often so small as to be indistinguishable. 

33. Baby lace, several examples of which are illustrated in 
Fig. 6, is a name for nearly any simple, narrow, dainty lace, whether 
of cotton or linen. Numerous varieties, such as Val, filet, torchon, 
Irish crochet, and Armenian, are made in the narrow widths suitable 
for baby lace. Such lace is chiefly used in making layettes, and on 
dainty dresses and undergarments for little folks. 













18 


LACES 



34. Battenberg lace, Fig. 7, is a form of Renaissance lace but 
of a coarser quality, and consists of a braid, or tape, usually of fine 
linen thread, woven together with linen thread into all kinds of 

designs. It is made by 
machinery and by hand. 
Machine-made Batten¬ 
berg is very cheap, but 
the hand-made is ex¬ 
pensive, the price being 
governed by the delicacy 
of the pattern. The 
hand-made pieces are 
used as collars and cuffs 
on women and children’s 
coats, and the coarser 
designs, for draperies and 
fancy work. 


35. Blonde lace 

was originally a heavy, 
closely woven bobbin lace 
produced in Spain and 
made of unbleached silk, 
from which it took its 
name. Later, the term 
was applied to silk laces 
in white, black, and col¬ 
ors made at Chantilly, 
France. It has a ground 
of fine, twisted silk and a 
toile, or pattern, worked 
entirely with a broad, 
flat strand that produces 
a soft, silky effect. 


Machine-Made Bohemian 36. Bobbinet, Fig. 

8, is the net made by the 
bobbin as distinguished from that made by the needle. Modern 
bobbinet is a machine imitation of the original hand-made bobbinet. 
It has hexagonal, or six-sided, holes but no designs and is used for 
dresses, dress foundations, overdrapes, and draperies. The price of 





LACES 


19 


bobbinet depends on the firmness of the mesh, the coarser weaves 
being less expensive than the finer ones. A kind of bobbinet, called 
Tosca net and shown in Fig. 8, is more open than ordinary bob¬ 
binet, but it is very firmly woven, and consequently very durable. 


37, Bohemian lace, Fig. 9, 
is a bobbin lace that is made in 
Bohemia and may be recognized 
by the tape-like effect in the pat¬ 
tern. As a rule, this lace is too 
coarse in weave and design to be 
suitable as dress trimming. It is 



Hand-Made Bruges 
Fig. 10 



Machine-Made Brussels 
Fig. 11 


both hand-and machine-made, the machine-made variety being very 
effective for it often imitates the designs of the old Bohemian laces. 

38. Bruges lace, Fig. 10, consists of . fine lace tape woven 
together with fine thread. The real lace is made in much the 


5D—7 




20 


LACES 


same way as duchesse lace, but it is, as a rule, somewhat coarser. 
The fine weaves of this lace are suitable as dress trimmings, and 
the coarser, cheaper grades are used for table-cover finishes and 

draperies. 




Hand-Made Applique Carrickmacross 


39. Brussels point 
lace, Fig. 11, is a lace of 
exquisite fineness in 
which the designs are 
made separately and 
then assembled and ap¬ 
plied to a net ground. 
Formerly, the ground 
was worked with bob¬ 
bins around the flowers, 
but later the flowers 
were sewed to a machine 
net. At one time, Brus¬ 
sels lace was smuggled 
into England and called 
Point d’Angleterre to 
avoid the duty. The 
earliest Brussels point 
resembled Alengon lace 
in that the designs were 
outlined with a cord, but 
this outlining thread was 
not covered with button¬ 
hole-stitches nor was the 
lace so close and firm. 

In the lace trade, Brus¬ 
sels point is a name 
given to very fine laces, 
regardless of the pat¬ 
tern. It is called Rose 
point when its pattern 
contains rose motifs, and Point Gaze when its designs are of a very 
fine, open, delicate kind. 


Machine-Made Applique Carrickmacross 
Fig. 12 


40. Carrickmacross lace is of two kinds—applique and 
guipure. Applique Carrickmacross, Fig. 12, is made by placing sheer 


LACES 


21 


material over plain net and applying designs to the net with the 
buttonhole-stitch or the chain-stitch, and then cutting away the 
surplus material so as to leave the outline of the design clear. 
Guipure Carrickmacross, Fig. 13, which is a heavy lace, closely 
resembles cut work. It is made by working the outline of the 
design over a foundation and then connecting the motifs or designs 
with crocheted brides, or loops, or loops ornamented with petals or 
picots, as in Irish crochet lace. The centers of the flowers, in hand¬ 
made Carrickmacross, are cut away and the openings filled with 
lace stitches and the detached parts of the pattern connected with 
bars. Hand-made Carrickmacross, which is rather expensive, 



Machine-Made Guipure Carrickmacross 
Fig. 13 


is used for whole dresses and as trimming for dresses, and the 
machine-made is used for inexpensive curtains. 

41. Chantilly lace, Fig. 14, was named from the town of 
Chantilly, France, but it is now made in the towns of Bayeaux, 
Grammont, and Calvados. It is bobbin lace characterized by 
fineness of ground, light, open-work flowers, and thick, silky threads 
outlining the patterns. Black Chantilly, which is said to have no 
rival in the lace realm and has a fine ground and elegant floral 
patterns, appeared in the 17th century made out of a grenadine, 
or non-lustrous silk. 




Hand-Made Chantilly Machine-Made Chantilly 

Fig. 14 


22 




























LACES 


23 


The imitations of Chantilly follow closely the designs of the 
original laces, and while they are not equal in quality to the real 
lace and are generally made of cotton thread, they are extremely 
effective. 

Chantilly lace is used for dress trimmings, flounces, overdrapes, 
and dresses. It is expensive at the outset, but it is very durable 
and may be used again and again. 

42. Cluny lace, Fig. 15, is a coarse-thread bobbin lace made 
of a heavy, strong, tightly twisted thread in linen and cotton. It 



Hand-Made Cluny 



Machine-Made Cluny 
Fig. IS 


is named from the Museum of Antiquities in the Hotel Cluny, 
Paris, because it is supposed to have an antique look. It is similar 
to torchon lace, but is distinguished by its geometrical designs, 
which often take the form of wheels and paddles. 

The machine-made Cluny has reached such a degree of excellence 
that it is sometimes difficult even for experts to detect the difference 
between the real and the imitation. However, there are three 
distinguishing points: (1) Machine-made Cluny is made of two 



24 


LACES 


sizes of thread and hand-made, of one; (2) its threads have a 
crinkly, irregular look instead of a straight, taut one, as in hand¬ 
made ; (3) the thread used is generally cotton, while linen thread is 
used in the hand-made. 

Fine weaves of Cluny lace are used in lingerie blouses and dresses; 
the coarser weaves, for pillows, centerpieces, and so on. The 
durability of hand-made Cluny makes it inexpensive, even though 

the original cost may seem exor¬ 
bitant. 

43. Craquele net, Fig. 16, 
consists of a firm thread woven 
in zigzag effect and producing a 
mesh that is sometimes used in 
shadow lace of good quality and 
resembles the crackle in old pot¬ 
tery. It has beautiful designs, 
which make it attractive for 
overdrapes and all-lace dresses. It is more expensive than plain net. 

44. Crochet lace is lace which, in the hand-made variety, 
differs from other hand-made laces in that it is made with a crochet 
hook and but a single thread. It is similar to needle-point lace, 
but does not equal it in fineness. In their designs, crochet laces 
usually imitate needle-point laces, such as Venetian and Honiton. 

Irish crochet, Fig. 17, is probably the most popular variety of 
crochet lace. The distinguishing mark of this lace, which is difficult 
to imitate, is the crochet-stitch or the buttonhole-stitch, which is 
followed by every thread of the work. As shown in the illustration, 
this lace comes in a heavy variety known as heavy Irish crochet, the 
designs of which have an outlining cordonnet, and a fine, flat 
variety, known as Baby Irish and in which the cordonnet is 
omitted. This kind of Irish lace is closely imitated, as shown in 
Fig. 17, in both pattern and width. Real Irish lace is distinguished 
by its thread, linen thread generally being used, and it has a stiff, 
starchy feel rather than a soft, puffy one as in the imitation. 

The best Irish lace is made in Ireland, but much of this lace, 
and good qualities, too, comes from Armenia, Austria, Germany, 
Italy, China, and France. 

Irish lace of both kinds is used chiefly as trimming for women 
and children’s dresses. 




Hand-Made Irish Crochet 



Hand-Made Baby Irish 




25 


Machine-Made Baby Irish 
Fig. 17 






26 


LACES 


45. Curtain lace, which is all machine-made, comes in many 
different varieties. Probably the best known kind is found in 
Brussels lace, or Nottingham, curtains. On a foundation of 
machine-made net, a design is worked either by hand or by machine. 
Saxony Brussels curtains are characterized by a double net in the 
design, while Swiss Brussels curtains have a single net throughout 
and a machine-made chain-stitch that forms the designs. The 
lace-curtain industry in America has been making rapid strides for 
a number of years, so that many beautiful curtains are now made 
here. 


46. Cut work is made by cutting spaces out of closely woven 
linen, buttonholing around the sides to prevent them from fray¬ 
ing, and then partly filling in the space with ornamental stitches. 
It is tedious to make, a fact that accounts for the expensiveness 
of hand-made pieces. Cut work is used on linen collars and cuffs, 
as well as in fancy work. 

Cut work was known in the earliest stages of lace making. In 
the old specimens of this work, elaborate embroidery was worked 
on plain linen. Gradually, more of the linen was cut away 
and more elaborate designs were filled in until only threads were 
left. These were buttonholed over and what is known as reticella 
lace was produced. 

47. Drawn work is a kind of ornamental work which dates 
from early times and is produced by drawing certain threads out 
of a piece of material and then securing the remaining threads by a 
series of continuous hemstitching stitches. Many threads may 
be drawn and designs formed in the remaining threads by weaving, 
darning, or tying with other threads. Drawn work is an attractive 
finish for lingerie garments, but is chiefly used in fancy work. 
Hand drawn work is not overly expensive, because it can be made 
at home with little effort and outlay. Machine drawn work is 
rarely desirable. Dresden point lace , which was made during the 
17th and 18th centuries, was a kind of hand drawn work. 

48. Duchesse lace, Fig, 18, is a bobbin lace in which the ground 
is one of brides and bars rather than net. Some sections of the 
design, which consist of flowers, leaves, and sprays, are closely 
woven, imparting to this lace a tape-like effect similar to that of 
Battenberg lace. Duchesse lace is rather expensive, but its wear- 


LACES 


27 


ing qualities are good. It has some exquisite patterns and is 


49. Egyptian lace 
is a fine, hand-made, 
knotted lace that is some¬ 
times ornamented with 
beads. It is expensive 
and therefore rarely used. 

When it is used, it is made 
to serve as trimming. Hand-Made Duchesse 



therefore suitable as trimming for elaborate gowns, especially 
bridal robes. The motifs 
of duchesse lace are imi¬ 
tated in princess lace, but 
not much similarity is 
seen because these motifs 
are applied to a net 
ground in princess lace. 



50. English, point 
lace, often referred to as 
Point d’Angle terre, is an 
extremely beautiful lace 
equal in design and mak¬ 
ing to many of the point 
laces of France and Italy. 

The mesh is always made 
with bobbins, but the pat¬ 
tern is usually made in 
needle-point. Raised 
ribs, which are produced 
by twisting or plaiting 
the bobbins, are some¬ 
times seen on the leaves 
or other parts of the de¬ 
sign. The ground shows 
much variation, fine 
needle-point fillings often 

being used and bobbin-made brides, or connecting bars, also 
being employed. 


Machine-Made Duchesse 
Fig. 18 




28 


LACES 


A mistaken idea that Point d’Angleterre originated in Belgium 
existed for some time. This was due to the fact that at one time 
in England the importation of laces was forbidden. However, 
much more lace was needed to fill the demand than could be supplied 
in England, so the English lace merchants bought up the finest 
Brussels laces and smuggled them into England under the name 
of English point or Point d’Angleterre. The original lace, how¬ 
ever, is purely an English lace and the chief portion of the finest 
varieties was made in England. 

51. Fiber lace is made from the fibers of the banana and the 
aloe plant. It is a frail, expensive lace, and is not practical for many 

purposes. However, both 
banana-fiber and aloe- 
fiber lace are used as dress 
trimming, especially on 
sheer organdies and 
chiffons. 

52. Filet lace, Fig. 

19, is a darned or em¬ 
broidered net woven into 
squares with a contin¬ 
uous thread, there being 
a knot at each corner of 
the square mesh. It is 
perhaps one of the most 
attractive and practical 
of the lingerie laces, and 
is excellent for blouses 
and dresses. Real filet 
lace is expensive, but it 
wears indefinitely. Chi¬ 
nese filet lace is coarser and consequently cheaper than the other 
varieties. Beautiful imitations of filet lace may be purchased at 
very reasonable prices. 

53. Guipure lace was probably a bobbin or needle-made 
lace of gold, silver, or silk threads, but now this term is usually 
applied to all large-patterned laces having coarse grounds, flowers 
joined by brides or coarse stitches, and no delicate groundings, and 



Hand-Made Filet 



Machine-Made Filet 
Fig. 19 








Hand-Made Honiton Guipure 



Hand-Made Honiton Applique 



29 


Machine-Made Honiton 
Fig. 20 




30 


LACES 


includes duchesse, Honiton, Maltese, and Venetian laces. The word 
guipure is derived from guipe , which means a thick cord around 
which silk is rolled. This padding, which was known as cartisane, 
was not durable as it would not wash and shrivelled up with heat, 
so the pattern was soon destroyed. In time, it was replaced 
by a cotton thread and gradually the lace came to be made with 
heavy tape rather than a rolled cord. 

54. Honiton lace, Fig. 20, a pillow lace originally made at 
Honiton, England, consists of round, heavy motifs or sprays of 



Hand-Made Limerick 
Fig. 21 


finely woven braid joined with a needle. Honiton lace is either 
applique or guipure. The applique Honiton is made by applying 
the motifs to a ground that is usually machine-made net. Honiton 
guipure is characterized by large flower patterns joined by needle- 
made bars. It is similar to duchesse lace, but is heavier in effect. 
The chief use of Honiton lace is as a dress trimming. The machine- 
made varieties usually show a tape-like effect. 

55. Lille lace is a French lace that resembles Mechlin, except 
that the sides of its mesh are twisted, whereas in Mechlin they are 
braided. Its designs are of a simple nature, being usually outlined 




Machine-Made Macrame 
Fig. 22 



31 


Machine-Made Maltese 
Fig. 23 






32 


LACES 


by a thread of flat, untwisted flax, and its ground is sometimes 
sprinkled with dots. 


56. Limerick lace, Fig. 21, is not a real lace but consists of 
delicate patterns embroidered on net or muslin with either a chain- 

stitch or a darning- 
stitch. Real Limerick 
lace is beautiful as a 
dress trimming, but 
as a rule it is expen¬ 
sive ; machine-made 
Limerick, on the other 
hand, is more ordina¬ 
ry in appearance and 
less expensive, but it 
makes an effective 
dress trimming. 


57. Macrame 
lace is of Spanish 
origin. It is a surviv- 




Machine-Made Mechlin 


Fig. 24 


Hand-Made Mechlin 


al of knotted point lace and is woven usually in geometrical designs 
down from the selvage, many ends being woven together and then tied 
to form the pattern. Macrame cord, which is made out of close- 
twisted cotton thread, is manufactured for this purpose. Fre¬ 
quently, the threads are allowed to hang loose and form a fringe. 
Fine silk macrame is used for scarf and shawl ends and the coarse 




LACES 


33 


carpet-warp kind is used for finishing the edges of bedspreads, 
table scarfs, etc. Macrame wears indefinitely, and the machine- 
made kind, which is illustrated in Fig. 22, though rather expensive, 
is excellent when a heavy lace is desired. 



Hand-Made Medici 



58. Maltese 


lace is a bobbin 
lace of more open 
weave than 
either Mechlin or 
V alenciennes, 
but it is not un¬ 
like either of 
these laces. It 
has no regular 
ground and, as a 
rule, the patterns 
include a conven¬ 
tionalized Mal¬ 
tese cross and 
dots called 
“mosca.” It is 
made both in 
thread and in 
black and white 
silk. The ma¬ 
chine made vari¬ 
ety, Fig. 23, is 
moderately 
priced, wears 
well, and is used 
for dresses and 
lingerie garments. 


Machine-Made Medici 
Fig. 25 


59. Mechlin 
lace, Fig. 24, is 
a very fibery, 

beautiful, bobbin lace. The patterns, which are chiefly flowers and 
buds and resemble those of Brussels lace, are outlined with a thread of 
flat, silky flax. The net ground has hexagonal meshes in which four of 
the sides consist of two threads twisted and the other two, four threads 




Hand-Made Metal Lace 



Machine-Made Metal Lace 
Fig. 26 


34 



















LACES 


35 


plaited. The making of this lace requires great skill, so it is rather 
costly, but it is closely imitated on the machine and the machine- 
made variety may be purchased at reasonable prices. Mechlin 
lace makes a very beautiful trimming for non-washable dresses, 
the nature of the mesh and the fineness of the thread preventing it 
from washing satisfactorily. 

60. Medici lace, Fig. 25, resembles Cluny, but it is usually 
made of finer thread and has one of its edges finished with scallops. 
It is characterized by closely woven work alternating with an equal 
amount of open work. It is rather difficult to imitate this lace on 
the machine, and still there are some machine-made varieties that 
are very well done. 

Medici lace is used for 
the same purposes as 
Cluny lace. 

61. Metal lace, Fig. 

26, which is made both 
by hand and by machine, 
is developed out of gold 
or silver threads. The 
hand-made variety, which 
is very rare and conse¬ 
quently expensive, is a 

' guipure lace, whereas 
machine-made metal Nottingham Lace 

lace consists of a net 

foundation in which are woven all kinds of designs with metal 
threads. It is used as trimming for evening dresses and robes 
and in millinery work, many beautiful effects being created with it. 

62. Nottingham lace, one kind of which is shown in Fig. 27, 
is a term that includes all of the machine-made laces made at 
Nottingham, England, the center of the machine-made lace district. 
Curtain laces are produced in large quantity, but there are also 
clever imitations of many hand-made laces, such as Valenciennes 
Mechlin, and Chantilly. 

Laces made at Nottingham are both white and cream and are 
used largely for curtains, but the finer weaves are employed for 
dress trimmings. 

5D—8 

1 



36 


LACES 



Oriental Lace 
Fig. 28 


63. o riental lace, 

Fig. 28, is in reality an 
embroidered net from which 
the ground is not cut 
away. In the making of 
this lace, two threads are 
used, one, which is heavy, 
being employed to make 
the design on top, and the 
other, which is lighter, hold¬ 
ing the design underneath. 

Oriental laces come in 
many designs and widths 
and are highly satisfactory 
as dress trimmings. 

64. Paraguay, or 
Teneriffe, lace, Fig. 29, 
is a lace characterized by 
spider-web effects woven 
of single threads, which 
are arranged into spider 
wheels and woven together. 
The very fine Paraguay 
laces, which are expensive, 
are used as dress trimming; 
the coarser weaves, which 
are not so costly, are used 
in fancy work. 

65. Pearling, Fig. 30, 
is a very narrow picot edge 
used as a finish for dress 
linings and similar articles. 

66. Plauen is a general 
term that includes all laces 
originating in Plauen, Sax¬ 
ony, but now made in many 
other places. Most of them 
are imitations of many of 



37 


Machine-Made Paraguay 
Fig. 29 






38 


LACES 


the beautiful real laces, such as Point de Venice, but new designs 
are originated from time to time. These laces are produced on the 
SchifHi machine by embroidering with cotton or silk thread on 
woolen material and then chemically treating the embroidery so as 



Pearling 
Fig. 30 



Plauen Lace 
Fig. 31 


to dissolve the wool and leave only the cotton or silk, which 
then takes on the appearance of lace. Because of the method 
of making, such laces are somewhat frail and cannot be used 
where a durable lace is required. 


LACES 


39 



Plauen lace is shown in Fig. 31 and other examples are found in 
the illustrations of machine-made reticella, Fig. 37, and machine- 
made Venetian, Fig. 45. 

67. Point de Gaze lace, Fig. 32, is a very fine, delicate, 
gauze-like lace that bears a resemblance to Alengon. Part of the 
pattern is made in close* and part in open, stitch, the open work 


Hand-Made Point de Gaze 
Fig. 32 

being ornamented with dots. It is distinguished from Alengon, 
however, in that its designs are not outlined with buttonholing but 
are merely emphasized with a thread. 

68. Point de Paris lace originally resembled Brussels and 
had a distinctive hexagonal mesh and a flat design. Now, the 
term is generally applied to machine-made cotton lace resembling 




40 


LACES 


Val but of simple pattern and inferior quality, as shown in Fig. 33. 
Its figures, consisting of flowers and leaves, are outlined with a 
heavy cord. 

69. Princess lace, Fig. 34, is a delicate, beautiful lace made 
in imitation of duchesse lace, but often bearing little resemblance 



Machine-Made Point de Paris 
Fig. 33 

to it because of its net ground. In the best type, the parts of the 
lace are made separately and then applied by hand to a machine- 
made ground. As in the case of duchesse lace, princess lace is used 
chiefly for dress trimming. 

70. Ratine lace, Fig. 35, is an inexpensive machine-made lace 
having designs that consist of a groundwork of heavy loops, resem- 




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Sgr > - v» '-&&SS83S&&&**'wJCwl 


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M^MpaMIM 

hM^ 'MfamhSm 

SMK^Mr fjmM 

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fea&fey 33£ 8*% k*a«&« v 

*jpyr^\" ' - r '*‘•: •♦««»*•;*% V'.;. 

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Princess Lace 

Fig. 34 




42 


LACES 


bling Turkish toweling. It is generally used on wash dresses that 
are made of heavy, rough material. 



Ratine Lace 

Fig. 35 



Hand-Made Renaissance 
Fig. 36 


71. Renaissance lace, Fig. 36, consists of linen tape woven 
into motifs and the parts then fastened together with twisted bars, 







LACES 


43 


spider wheels, and other flat stitches. It is lighter than Batten- 
berg lace and not so rich in appearance. The fine weaves of 
Renaissance lace are used for dresses, and the coarser weaves for 
draperies. 



72. Reticella lace, Fig. 37, was the earliest of needle-point 
laces, being originally a development of drawn and cut work. 
Brides and picots were introduced and simple geometrical outlines 
followed. Later, the foundation fabric or cut work was abandoned 
and the needlework constituted the entire design. The machine- 

made reticella resembles the real 
lace in design, but is in reality a 
Plauen lace produced on the Schiffli 
machine. Real reticella lace is 
very expensive, but good imitations 



may be procured at a reasonable price. Reticella lace is used for 
collars and sometimes in millinery work; the finer weaves are 
employed as dress trimming. 

73. Shadow lace, Fig. 38, is a thin filmy lace of fine weave, 
having an entirely flat surface and rather indistinct designs. It 
may be of any design or character so long as it is shadowy in appear¬ 
ance. 

Shadow lace is extensively used as a dress trimming, its soft, 
lacy appearance making it desirable for draping purposes. It is not 
an expensive lace, its price usually being regulated by the fineness 
of the thread and the design. 




Shadow Lace 
Fic. 38 





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Spanish Lace 

Fig. 39 












LACES 


45 





74. Spanish lace, Fig. 39, is a machine-made lace, usually 
in silk fiber, in imitation of the old Spanish laces, which are made of 
real silk. It comes in 
all-over patterns and in 
flouncings and is char¬ 
acterized by floral de¬ 
signs and sprays on a 
ground of craquele net. 

Spanish lace of this 
variety is used chiefly 
for afternoon and even¬ 
ing gowns. 


75. St. Gall lace, 

Fig. 40, is one of the 
varieties of lace made 
at St. Gall, Switzer¬ 
land, the lace center of 
that country. Many 
of these laces are simi¬ 
lar to those made at 
Plauen, being both good and poor imitations of some of the lovely 
real laces, but St. Gall also makes beautiful hand-made laces. 
The variety shown here has Teneriffe characteristics. The machine- 

made varieties produced 
at St. Gall are made on 


St. Gall Lace 
Fig. 40 


the Schiffli machine and 
then burnt out to pro¬ 
duce the pattern. 


made with an oblong 
shuttle, around which 
the thread is wound and 
by means of which loops 
Machine-Made^Tatting Edging and knots are worked. 

The name is derived 
from tattle, an Indian matting, which it slightly resembles. Tatting 
is made in the form of a simple edging, as in Fig. 41, and in elaborate 


Hand-Made Tatting Edging 


7 6. Tatting is a 
form of knotted lace 






Hand-Made Tatting 


Machine-Made Tatting 
Fig. 42 


46 



LACES 


47 






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designs, as in Fig. 42. Beautiful patterns are often produced in 
this lace, it being lighter and more lace-like than any other variety 
of knotted lace. Many American women are proficient in making 
clover-leaf and wheel designs, and hand-made tatting of this nature 
may be purchased at a very reasonable price. Imitation tatting in 


Machine-Made Torchon 
Fig. 43 

no way compares with hand-made tatting, which is desirable as 
trimming for lingerie dresses and garments. Tatting is used also 
on children’s clothes and in making fancy work. 

77. Torchon lace, Fig. 43, is one of the plainest of the bobbin 
laces and is made by peasants all over Europe. The better grades 


Hand-Made Torchon 



48 


LACES 



Hand-Made French Val 




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Machine-Made French Val 


Hand-Made German Val 





Machine-Made German Val 
Fig. 1 44 


of torchon are made 
of linen thread, and 
the cheaper qualities, 
which are commonly 
called beggar's lace or 
Bavarian lace, of cot¬ 
ton. The coarser 
weaves of torchon are 
much used in fancy 
work, and the fine 
weaves are employed 
in lingerie dresses. 
Torchon lace is inex¬ 
pensive when its wear¬ 
ing qualities are taken 
into consideration. 

78. Tulle is a 

fine, gauzy machine 
net. It is fluffy and 
beautiful when fresh, 
but is so frail that it 
has a very short life. 
Tulle is used on even¬ 
ing dresses, as a hat 
trimming, and in 
places where fluffy, 
airy bows are desired. 
It is sometimes called 
maline or illusion. 

79. Val lace, 
Fig. 44, the common 
term for Valenciennes 
lace , is a bobbin lace 
in which the ground 
and the pattern are 
woven together. Its 
designs are flat, but 
they are very beauti- 





LACES 


49 



Hand-Made Venetian 



Machine-Made Venetian 

Fig. 45 


ful as they contain con¬ 
ventionalized roses, car¬ 
nations, and tulips. Its 
mesh is diamond-shaped 
or round, and very open 
and regular. For the real 
Val, linen thread is used, 
which gives it a firm, 
durable quality as well as 
a great delicacy. Much 
of the French Val is made 
at Calais, France. 

Valenciennes lace is 
imitated very well on the 
machine,, but as cotton 
thread is generally em¬ 
ployed, the lace thickens 
up in washing. It comes 
in several varieties, but 
the French and German 
Vais are the best known, 
the French being dis¬ 
tinguished by diamond¬ 
shaped mesh and very 
dainty designs, and the 
German, by round mesh 
and larger designs. 

Valenciennes lace usu¬ 
ally comes in narrow 
insertions and edgings. 
It is one of the daintiest 
laces for sheer lingerie 
dresses and can be had 
at very little expense. It 
is also a good type of lace 
for children’s millinery. 

80. Venetian lace, 
Fig. 45, is a needle-point 
lace of great beauty that 





50 


LACES 



was made in Venice as early as the 16th century and at first 
resembled the early reticella except that the cut-like character 
was abandoned and the needle stitches were used alone. It consists 
of needle-point motifs or designs joined with an irregular network of 
brides. The three principal varieties of Venetian lace indicate the 
different stages in the development of this lace and the time when it 
was in vogue. They are: 

1. Raised point, which is also known as Gros point and includes 
Rose point, is characterized by raised or padded portions produced 

by means of working 
over cotton padding. In 
the Rose point, which is 
a general favorite, the 
design consists chiefly 
of small roses held to¬ 
gether with connecting 
brides. 

2. Flat Venetian 
point, or Point Plat de 
Venice, differs from 
Raised point in that it 
contains no prominent 
raised work and has 
smaller designs. Its chief 
variety is Coraline point, 
the designs of which 
resemble coral forma¬ 
tions and are connected 
by many brides. This 
lace is less beautiful than Raised Venetian point for its designs are 
irregular and then not so well connected. 

3. Grounded Venetian point has its designs arranged on a net 
ground and lacks ornamentation, thus almost losing its identity as a 
Venetian lace. Burano point is an important example of this 
variety. 


81. Wool lace, Fig. 46, is a woven lace of varied designs, in 
which wool thread is used for either the warp or weft thread or for 
both. The example shown here is of the filet variety. Lace of 
this kind is used chiefly for dress trimming. 



















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